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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
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<title>C Programming Fundamentals - The Checklist</title>
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<h1><a href="index.html">The Checklist</a></h1>
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<li><a href="checklist1.html">Checklist 1</a></li>
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<h2>C Programming</h2>
<ul>
<h3>Chapter 1: Introduction to C Programming</h3>
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1.1 What is C Programming?
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<p>C is a versatile, high-level programming language that finds its application in a wide array
of software and application development, system programming, game development, web
programming, and more. It was in 1972 when Dennis M. Ritchie, working at the Bell Telephone
Laboratories, birthed this programming gem. Originally intended for programming the UNIX
operating system, C has grown to become one of the most widely used and influential
programming languages out there.</p>
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1.2 History of C Programming
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<p>1. Genesis of C: C had its beginnings in the early 1970s at Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Dennis
Ritchie was the brain behind this creation.</p>
<p>2. B Language Predecessor: Before C, there was a programming language called B, which Ken
Thompson
developed. B was influenced by BCPL and was primarily used for the Multics operating system.
</p>
<p>3. Birth of C: Ritchie and his team wanted to enhance the capabilities and efficiency of B.
Their
efforts resulted in the birth of C, originally referred to as "NB" (New B). The work on C
started in 1972 and continued into 1973.</p>
<p>4. C for Unix: One of the primary goals of C was to provide a more efficient and versatile
language
for developing the Unix operating system. At the time, Unix was primarily written in
assembly
language, making it less portable across different computer architectures. C changed that.
</p>
<p>5. Portability: C's design for system programming allowed Unix to be easily ported to various
hardware platforms. This portability became one of the key factors in Unix's widespread
adoption.</p>
<p>6. The C Book: In 1973, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published "The C Programming
Language,"
often referred to as "K&R C." This book became the definitive reference for the language and
played a significant role in popularizing C among programmers and institutions.</p>
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1.3 Why Learn C Programming?
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<p>1. Fundamental Understanding: C is often considered the "mother" of all programming
languages. Learning C gives you a strong foundation in programming concepts, which can be
applied to other languages.</p>
<p>2. Efficiency: C is known for its efficiency. It allows you to write fast and optimized
code, making it suitable for system programming and applications where speed and resource
usage
are critical.</p>
<p>3. Portability: C code is highly portable across different platforms and operating systems.
Programs written in C can run on various hardware and software environments with minimal
modification.</p>
<p>4. Versatility: C is a versatile language used in a wide range of applications, from
embedded systems and game development to operating systems and high-performance computing.
</p>
<p>5. Low-Level Programming: Learning C allows you to work at a lower level of abstraction,
enabling you to understand how the computer's memory and processor work. This knowledge is
invaluable for system programming and debugging.</p>
<p>6. Problem-Solving Skills: C challenges you to manage memory, pointers, and other low-level
details. This hones your problem-solving skills and teaches you to write efficient code.</p>
<p>7. Career Opportunities: Proficiency in C programming is highly sought after by employers,
especially in industries like embedded systems, robotics, and game development.</p>
<p>8. Open Source and Legacy Code: Many open-source projects and legacy systems are written in
C. Learning C allows you to contribute to open-source software and maintain or modernize
older
codebases.</p>
<p>9. C++ and Embedded Systems: C is a precursor to C++, and learning C makes it easier to
transition to C++ for object-oriented programming. Additionally, C is commonly used in
embedded
systems, a growing field.</p>
<p>10. Security Knowledge: C requires careful memory management. Learning C can help you
understand and mitigate security vulnerabilities like buffer overflows and memory leaks.</p>
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1.4 Setting up the Development Environment
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<P>1. Choose an Operating System:
You can develop C programs on various operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and
macOS.
Your choice depends on your preferences and the platform you intend to target.</P>
<P>2. Select a Text Editor or Integrated Development Environment (IDE):
You have several options for writing C code. You can choose a simple text editor or a
specialized C programming IDE. Some popular choices include:
- Text Editors:
- Notepad (Windows)
- Visual Studio Code
- Sublime Text
- Atom
- C-Specific IDEs:
- Code::Blocks
- Dev-C++
- CLion
- Eclipse C/C++ IDE
- Linux Development Tools:
- On Linux, you can use text editors like Vim or Emacs along with GCC (GNU Compiler
Collection)
for compiling.</P>
<P>3. Install a C Compiler:
You need a C compiler to compile and execute your C programs. The most commonly used C
compiler
is GCC (GNU Compiler Collection). Here's how to install GCC on different platforms:
- Linux: Most Linux distributions come with GCC pre-installed. If not, you can use your
package manager to install it. For example, on Ubuntu, run `sudo apt-get install
build-essential`.
- Windows: You can use MinGW (Minimalist GNU for Windows) to install GCC on Windows.
Download the MinGW installer and follow the installation instructions.
- macOS: On macOS, you can use the Xcode Command Line Tools, which include GCC. Open a
terminal and run `xcode-select --install` to install these tools.</P>
<P>4. Write and Compile Your First C Program:
Now that you have a text editor, C compiler, and development environment set up, you can
write
your first C program. Here's a simple "Hello, World!" example:
```c
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello, World!\n");
return 0;
}
```
Save this code in a file with a `.c` extension, such as `hello.c`.</P>
<P>5. Compile and Run Your Program:
- On the command line, navigate to the directory where you saved your C file.
- Compile the program using the C compiler. For GCC, you can use the following command: `gcc
-o hello hello.c` (This compiles `hello.c` and produces an executable named `hello`.)
- Run the program by entering `./hello` (on Linux/macOS) or `hello.exe` (on Windows).</P>
<P>6. Debugging Tools (Optional):
For debugging your C programs, consider using a debugger like GDB (GNU Debugger) or the
built-in debugging tools provided by your chosen IDE.
That's a basic overview of setting up a C programming development environment. As you gain
more experience, you can explore additional tools and libraries to enhance your development
process.</P>
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<h3>Chapter 2: Getting Started with C</h3>
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2.1 Your First C Program
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<pre class="code-block">
#include< stdio.h >
int main(){
printf("Hello, World!");
return 0;
}
</pre>
<p>This program prints "Hello, World!" on the console.</p>
<p>#include< stdio.h> :- This line includes the stdio.h file, which contains the printf()
function.</p>
<p>int main() { :- This line defines the main() function, which is the entry point for all
C programs.</p>
<p>printf("Hello, World!"); :- This line prints the string "Hello, World!" to the console.</p>
<p>return 0; :- This line returns the value 0 to the operating system, indicating that the
program terminated successfully.</p>
}
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2.2 Basic Structure of a C Program
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<p>
There are 6 sections in a C.
</p>
<p>
// Documentation section
// Link section
// Definition section
// Global declaration section
// Main() function
// Subprograms
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2.3 Variables and Data Types
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<p>In C, there are different types of variables (defined with different keywords), for example:
</p>
<p>int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123.</p>
<p>float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99.</p>
<p>char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'.</p>
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2.4 Input and Output in C
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<p><u>scanf():</u></p>
<p>The scanf() method, in C, reads the value from the console as per the type specified. Syntax:
</p>
<p>"scanf(“%X”, &variableOfXType);" = where %X is the format specifier in C. It is a way to tell
the compiler what type of data is in a variable and & is the address operator in C</p>
<p><u>printf():</u></p>
<p>The printf() method, in C, prints the value passed as the parameter to it, on the console
screen. Syntax:</p>
<p>"printf(“%X”, variableOfXType);" = where %X is the format specifier in C. It is a way to tell
the compiler what type of data is in a variable and & is the address operator in C</p>
<p><b>Integer: </b></p>
<p>Input: <i>scanf("%d", &intVariable);</i></p>
<p>Output: <i>printf("%d", intVariable);</i></p>
<p><b>Float: </b></p>
<p>Input: <i>scanf("%f", &floatVariable);</i></p>
<p>Output: <i>printf("%f", folatVariable);</i></p>
<p><b>Character: </b></p>
<p>Input: <i>scanf("%c", &charVariable);</i></p>
<p>Output: <i>printf("%c", charVariable);</i></p>
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2.5 Comments and Formatting
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<p>Comments are used in C programming to provide information about the code, or to add notes for
yourself or other developers. Comments are ignored by the compiler, so they do not affect
the execution of the program.</p>
<p>There are two types of comments in C: single-line and multi-line.</p>
<p><u>Single-line comments</u> start with two forward slashes (//) and continue to the end of
the line.</p>
<p><u>Multi-line comments</u> start with a forward slash and an asterisk (/) and end with an
asterisk and a forward slash (/).</p>
<pre>/* This is a multi-line comment.
<p>It can span multiple lines. */</pre>
You can use comments to make your code more readable and understandable.</p>
<p><b><u>Formatting:</u></b></p>
<p>Formatting is also important in C programming. </p>
<p>Formatting your code can make it easier to read and understand. For example, you can use
spaces and tabs to indent your code, and you can use line breaks to separate different
sections of code.</p>
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2.6 Practice Problem
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<p>Question : </p>
<p>Write a C program to swap 2 numbers without using third variable</p><br>
<p>Solution : </p>
<pre class="code-block">
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("Enter two numbers \n");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("Value of a before swapping is : %d\n",a);
printf("Value of b before swapping is : %d\n",b);
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
printf("\nValue of a after swapping is : %d\n",a);
printf("Value of b after swapping is : %d\n",b);
}
</pre>
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<br>
<h3>Chapter 3: Control Structures</h3>
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3.1 Conditional Statements (if, else if, switch)
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<p>Conditional statements in C are programming constructs that allow a program to execute
different blocks of code based on whether a certain condition is true or false. The most
common types of conditional statements in C are the if, else if, and else statements.</p>
<p><u>The syntax for the if statement is: </u></p>
<pre class="code-block">
if (condition) {
// block of code to execute if condition is true
}
</pre>
<p>The else if statement is used to execute a block of code if a certain condition is true, and
another block of code if the condition is false. The syntax for the <u>else if statement</u>
is:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
if (condition1) {
// block of code to execute if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to execute if condition2 is true
} else {
// block of code to execute if condition1 and condition2 are false
}
</pre>
<p><u>Switch Statement</u></p>
<p>The switch statement in C is a selection statement that allows you to transfer control to
different statements within the switch body depending on the value of the switch expression.
</p>
<pre class="code-block">
switch (expression) {
case value1:
// code to be executed;
break;
}
case value2:
// code to be executed;
break;
default:
// code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
</pre>
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3.2 Loops (for, while, do-while)
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<!-- for loop -->
<p><b><u>For Loop</u></b></p>
<p>The for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop
that needs to execute a specific number of times.</p>
<p>The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
for (initialization; condition; increment) {
// statement(s);
}
</pre>
<p>Here is the flow of control in a 'for' loop:</p>
<p>The initialization statement is executed once, before the loop begins.</p>
<p>The condition statement is evaluated. If it is true, the loop body is executed. If it is
false, the loop terminates.</p>
<p>The increment statement is executed after the loop body is executed, before the condition
statement is evaluated again.</p>
<p>The loop goes back to step 2 and repeats the process until the condition statement becomes
false.</p>
<p>Here is an <u>example of a for loop</u> that prints the numbers from 1 to 10:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
printf("%d\n", i);
}
</pre>
<p>This loop will print the numbers from 1 to 10, one per line.</p>
<!-- while loop in c -->
<p><b><u>While Loop</u></b></p>
<p>The while loop in C is a programming construct that allows us to execute a block of code
repeatedly, as long as a specified condition remains true. The syntax for a while loop in C
is:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
while (condition) {
// code block
}
</pre>
<p>The condition is a Boolean expression that is evaluated before each iteration of the loop. If
the expression evaluates to true, the code block is executed. If the expression evaluates to
false, the loop terminates.</p>
<p>Here is an example of a while loop in C that prints the numbers from 1 to 10:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int i = 1;
while (i <= 10) {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}
</pre>
<p>In this example, the variable i is initialized to 1. The loop then iterates as long as i is
less than or equal to 10. On each iteration, the value of i is printed to the console, and
then i is incremented by 1. The loop terminates when i is greater than 10.</p>
<!-- Do while loop in c -->
<p><b><u>Do - While Loop</u></b></p>
<p>The do-while loop is a programming construct that allows us to execute a block of code
repeatedly, until a specified condition is met. The syntax for a do-while loop in C is as
follows:
</p>
<pre class="code-block">
do {
// statements
} while (condition);
</pre>
<p>The do keyword is followed by a block of statements, which is executed repeatedly. The while
keyword is followed by a condition, which is evaluated after each iteration of the loop. If
the condition is true, the loop is executed again; otherwise, the loop terminates.</p>
<p>Here is an example of a do-while loop in C that prints the numbers from 1 to 10:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int i = 1;
do {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
} while (i <= 10);
</pre>
<p>This loop will print the numbers from 1 to 10, inclusive</p>
<p>The do-while loop is a useful construct for situations where you need to execute a block of
code repeatedly, but you don't know how many times the loop should iterate. For example, you
could use a do-while loop to read input from a user until they enter a valid value.</p>
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3.3 Control Statements (break, continue)
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<p>The break and continue statements in C are used to control the flow of a loop. The break
statement causes the loop to terminate immediately, while the continue statement causes the
loop to skip the current iteration and continue with the next iteration.</p>
<p><b><u>Break Statement</u></b></p>
<p>Here is an example of how to use the break statement:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 5) {
break;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}
</pre>
<p>This code will print the numbers from 0 to 4, and then the break statement will cause the
loop to terminate.</p>
<p><b><u>Continue Statement</u></b></p>
<p>Here is an example of how to use the continue statement:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 5) {
continue;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}
</pre>
<p>This code will print the numbers from 0 to 9, skipping the number 5.</p>
<p>The break and continue statements can be used together to create more complex control flows.
For example, the following code will print the numbers from 0 to 9, but it will skip the
numbers 5 and 7:</p>
<img src="C Program Assets/continue example2.png" alt="">
<pre class="code-block">
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 5 || i == 7) {
continue;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}
</pre>
<p>The break and continue statements are powerful tools that can be used to control the flow of
a program. However, they should be used with care, as they can easily lead to unexpected
results.</p>
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3.4 Conditional Expressions (Ternary Operator)
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<p>The ternary operator in C is a conditional operator that can be used to replace an if-else
statement.</p>
<code>The syntax for the ternary operator is-
? :</code>
<p>where ? is the conditional expression, :` is the separator, and expression1 and expression2
are the expressions to be evaluated if the condition is true or false, respectively.</p>
<p><b><u>Example:</u></b></p>
<p>For example, the following code uses the ternary operator to print "hello world" if the value
of x is greater than 10, and "goodbye world" otherwise:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int x = 15;
printf("%s", x > 10 ? "hello world" : "goodbye world");
</pre>
<p>For example, the following code uses the ternary operator to assign the value of x to y if x
is greater than 10, and the value of 0 otherwise:</p>
<pre class="code-block">
int x = 15;
int y;
y = x > 10 ? x : 0;
</pre>
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3.5 Practice Problem
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</div>
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<p>Question 1 : </p>
<p>Write a C program to check a number is odd or even </p><br>
<p>Solution : </p>
<pre class="code-block">
int main()
{
int num;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num%2==0)
printf("Number is even \n");
else
printf("Number is odd \n");
return 0;
}
</pre>
<p>Question 2 : </p>
<p>Write a C program to find sum of series : 1+2+3....N</p><br>
<p>Solution : </p>
<pre class="code-block">
void main()
{
int i,N,sum=0;
printf("Enter the value of N\n");
scanf("%d",&N);
for(i=1;i<=N;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
printf("Sum from 1 to %d is: %d\n",N,sum);
}
</pre>
<p>Question 3 : </p>
<p>Write a C program to find factorial of a number</p><br>
<p>Solution : </p>
<pre class="code-block">
void main()
{
int n,i,f=1;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
f=f*i;
}
if(n < 0)
printf("Factorial does not exist for negative number\n");
else
printf("Factorial is %d\n",f);
}
</pre>
<p>Question 4 : </p>
<p>Write a C program to find sum of digits of a number</p><br>
<p>Solution : </p>
<pre class="code-block">
void main()
{
int n,d,sum=0,copy;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
copy=n;
while(copy!=0)
{
d=copy%10;
sum=sum+d;
copy/=10;
}
printf("Sum of digits is : %d\n",sum);
}
</pre>
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<h3>Chapter 4: Functions</h3>
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4.1 Defining and Calling Functions
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<p><b><u>What is Functions?</u></b></p>
<p>A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C program has at
least one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial programs can define additional
functions.</p>
<p>A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and
parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function.</p>
<!-- Defining a function -->
<p><b><u>Defining a Function:</u></b></p>
<p>The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows −</p>
<pre class="code-block">
return_type function_name( parameter list ) {
//body of the function
}
</pre>
<p>A function definition in C programming consists of a function header and a function body.
Here are all the parts of a function −</p>
<pre class="code-block">
• Return Type - A function may return a value.
The return_type is the data type of the value the function returns.
Some functions perform the desired operations without returning a value.
In this case, thereturn_type is the keyword void.
• Function Name - This is the actual name of the function.
The function name and the parameter list together constitute the function signature.
Parameters - A parameter is like a placeholder.
When a function is invoked, you pass a value to the parameter.
This value is referred to as actual parameter or argument.
The parameter list refers to the type, order, and number of the parameters of a function.
Parameters are optional; that is, a function may contain no parameters.
• Function Body - The function body contains a collection of statements
that define what the function does.
</pre>
<p><b>Example:</b></p>
<p>Given below is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes two
parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum value between the two −</p>
<pre class="code-block">
/* function returning the max between two numbers */ int max(int num1, int num2) {
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;
return result;
}
</pre>
<!-- calling a function -->
<p><b><u>Calling a Function:</u></b></p>
<p>While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a
function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task.</p>
<p>When a program calls a function, the program control is transferred to the called function. A
called function performs a defined task and when its return statement is executed or when
its function-ending closing brace is reached, it returns the program control back to the
main program.</p>
<p>To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with the function
name, and if the function returns a value, then you can store the returned value. For
example −</p>
<pre class="code-block">
/* function declaration */ int max(int num1, int num2);
int main() {
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;
/* calling a function to get max value */ ret = max(a, b);
printf("Max value is : %d\n", ret );
return 0;
}
/* function returning the max between two numbers */
int max(int num1, int num2) {
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1> num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;
return result;
}
</pre>
<p><b>Output:</b> Max value is : 200</p>
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4.2 Function Parameters and Return Values
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<p><b><u>Parameters in C functions</u></b></p>
<p><u>Pass by Value.</u> Pass by Value, means that a copy of the data is made and stored by way
of the
name of the parameter. Any changes to the parameter have NO affect on data in the calling
function.</p>
<p><u>Pass by Reference.</u> A reference parameter "refers" to the original data in the calling
function</p>
<p><b><u>Return Values in C functions</u></b></p>
<p>The return statement may or may not return a value depending upon the return type of the
function. For example, int returns an integer value, void returns nothing, etc.</p>
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4.3 Scope and Lifetime of Variables
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