U-root is an embeddable root file system intended to be placed in a FLASH device as part of the firmware image, along with a Linux kernel. The program source code is installed in the root file system contained in the firmware FLASH part and compiled on demand. All the u-root utilities, roughly corresponding to standard Unix utilities, are written in Go, a modern, type-safe language with garbage collection and language-level support for concurrency and inter-process communication.
Unlike most embedded root file systems, which consist largely of binaries, u-root has only 5: an init program and 4 Go compiler binaries. When a program is first run, it, and any not-yet-built packages it uses are compiled to a RAM-based file system. The first invocation of a program takes a fraction of a second, as it is compiled. Packages are only compiled once, so the slowest build is always the first one, on boot, which takes about 3 seconds. Subsequent invocations are very fast, usually a millisecond or so.
U-root blurs the line between script-based distros such as Perl Linux[24] and binary-based distros such as BusyBox[26]. It has the flexibility of Perl Linux and the performance of BusyBox. Scripts and builtins are written in Go, not a shell scripting language. U-root is a new way to package and distribute file systems for embedded systems, and the use of Go promises a dramatic improvement in their security.
Embedding kernels and root file systems in BIOS FLASH is a common technique for gaining boot time performance and platform customization[25][14][23]. Almost all new firmware includes a multiprocess operating system with a full complement of file systems, network drivers, and protocol stacks, all contained in an embedded file system. In some cases, the kernel is only booted long enough to boot another kernel. In others, the kernel that is booted and the file system it contains constitute the operational environment of the device[15]. These so-called “embedded root file systems” also contain a set of standard Unix-style programs used for both normal operation and maintenance. Space on the device is at a premium, so these programs are usually written in C using the BusyBox toolkit[26], or in an interpretive language such as Perl[24] or Forth. BusyBox in particular has found wide usage in embedded appliance environments, as the entire root file system can be contained in under one MiB.
Embedded systems, which were once standalone, are now almost always network connected. Network connected systems face a far more challenging security environment than even a few years ago. In response to the many successful attacks against shell interpreters[11] and C programs[8], we have started to look at using a more secure, modern language in embedded root file systems, namely, Go[21][16].
Go is a new systems programming language created by Google. Go has strong typing; language level support for concurrency; inter-process communication via channels, a la Occam[13], Limbo[17], and Alef[27]; runtime type safety and other protective measures; dynamic allocation and garbage collection; closures; and a package syntax, similar to Java, that makes it easy to determine what packages a given program needs. The modern language constructs make Go a much safer language than C. This safety is critical for network-attached embedded systems, which usually have network utilities written in C, including web servers, network servers including sshd, and programs that provide access to a command interpreter, itself written in C. All are proving to be vulnerable to the attack-rich environment that the Internet has become. Buffer overflow attacks affecting C-based firmware code (among other things) in 2015 include GHOST and the so-called FSVariable.c bug in Intel’s UEFI firmware. Buffer overflows in Intel’s UEFI and Active Management Technology (AMT) have also been discovered in several versions in recent years.
Both UEFI[12] and AMT[4] are embedded operating systems, loaded from FLASH that run network-facing software. Attacks against UEFI have been extensively studied[9]. Most printers are network-attached and are a very popular exploitation target[6]. Firmware is not visible to most users and is updated much less frequently (if at all) than programs. It is the first software to run, at power on reset. Exploits in firmware are extremely difficult to detect, because firmware is designed to be as invisible as possible. Firmware is extremely complex; UEFI is roughly equivalent in size and capability to a Unix kernel. Firmware is usually closed and proprietary, with nowhere near the level of testing of kernels. These properties make firmware an ideal place for so-called advanced persistent threats[10][18][5]. Once an exploit is installed, it is almost impossible to remove, since the exploit can inhibit its removal by corrupting the firmware update process. The only sure way to mitigate a firmware exploit is to destroy the hardware.
U-root is an excellent option for embedded systems. U-root contains only 5 binaries, 4 of them from the Go toolchain, and the 5th is an init binary. The rest of the programs are contained in BIOS FLASH in source form, including packages. The search path is arranged so that when a command is invoked, if it is not in /bin, an installer is invoked instead which compiles the program into /bin. If the build succeeds, the command is executed. This first invocation takes a fraction of a second, depending on program complexity. After that, the RAM-based, statically linked binaries run in about a millisecond. Scripts are written in Go, not a shell scripting language, with two benefits: the shell can be simple, with fewer corner cases, and the scripting environment is substantially improved since Go is more powerful than most shell scripting languages, but also less fragile and less prone to parsing bugs.
The u-root boot image is a build toolchain and a set of programs in source form. When first used, a program and any needed but not-yet-built packages are built and installed, typically in a fraction of a second. With later uses, the binary is executed. The root file system is almost entirely unformed on boot; /init sets up the key directories and mounts, including common ones such as /etc and /proc.
Since the init program itself is only 132 lines of code and is easy to change, the structure is very flexible and allows for many use cases, for example:
- Additional binaries: if the 3 seconds it takes to get to a shell is too long (some applications such as automotive computing require 800 ms startup time), and there is room in FLASH, some programs can be precompiled into /bin.
- Build it all on boot: if on-demand compilation is not desired, a background thread in the init process can build all the programs on boot.
- Selectively remove binaries after use: if RAM space is at a premium, once booted, a script can remove everything in
/bin. Utilities or commands that are used will be rebuilt on demand. - Always build on demand: run in a mode in which programs are never written to
/binand always rebuilt on demand. This is a very practical option given that program compilation is so fast. - Lockdown: if desired, the system can be locked down once booted in one of several ways: the entire
/srctree can be removed, for example, or just the compiler toolchain can be deleted.
U-root is packaged as an LZMA-compressed initial RAM file system (initramfs) in cpio format. It is contained in a Linux compressed kernel image, also know as bzImage. The bootloader (for example, syslinux) or firmware (for example, coreboot) loads the bzImage into memory and starts it. The Linux kernel sets up a RAM-based root file system and unpacks the u-root file system into it. This initial root file system contains the Go toolchain (4 binaries), an init binary, the u-root program source, and the entire Go source tree, which provides packages needed for u-root programs.
All Unix systems start an init process on boot and u-root is no exception. The init for u-root sets up some basic directories, symlinks, and files. It builds a command installer and invokes the shell. This process is described in more detail below. The boot file system layout is shown in Table 1.
The src directory is where programs and u-root packages reside. The go/bin directory is for any Go tools built after boot; the go/pkg/tool directory contains binaries for various architecture/kernel combinations. The directory in which a compiler toolchain is placed provides information about the target OS and architecture, for example, the Go build places binaries for Linux on x86 64 in /go/pkg/tool/linux amd64/. Note that there is no /bin or many of the other directories expected in a root file system. The init binary builds them. It creates an empty /bin which is filled with binaries on demand as shown in Table 2.The u-root root file system has very little state.
For most programs to work, the file system must be more complete. Image space is saved by having init create additional file system structure at boot time: it fills in the missing parts of the root filesystem. It creates /dev and /proc and mounts them. It creates an empty /bin which is filled with binaries on demand.
In addition to /bin, there is a directory called /buildbin. Buildbin and the correct setup of $PATH are the keys to making on-demand compilation work. The init process sets $PATH to /go/bin:/bin:/buildbin:/usr/local/bin. Init also builds installcommand using the Go bootstrap builder and creates a complete set of symlinks. As a final step, init execs sh.
There is no /bin/sh at this point; the first sh found in $PATH is /buildbin/sh. This is a symlink to installcommand. Installcommand, once started, examines argv[0], which is sh, and takes this as instruction to build /src/cmds/sh/.go into /bin and then exec /bin/sh. There is no difference between starting the first shell and any other program. Hence, part of the boot process involves the construction of an installation tool to build a binary for a shell which is then run.
If a user wants to examine the source to the shell, they can cat /src/cmds/sh/.go. The cat command will be built and then show those files. U-root is intended for network-based devices and hence good network initialization code is essential. U-root includes a Go version of the IP and DHCP programs, along with the docker netlink package and a DHCP package.
Table 1 below shows the initial layout of a u-root file system.
All Go compiler and runtime source is included under /go/src. All u-root source is under /src and the compiler toolchain binaries are under /go/pkg.
| Directory | Subdirectory | Command |
|---|---|---|
| /src | cmds/ | |
| builtin/builtin.go | ||
| /cat.go | ||
| /cmp.go | ||
| comm/comm.go | ||
| cp/cp.go | ||
| date/date.go | ||
| dmesg/dmesg.go | ||
| echo/echo.go | ||
| freq/freq.go | ||
| grep/grep.go | ||
| init/init.go | ||
| installcommand/installcommand.go | ||
| ip/ip.go | ||
| ldd/ldd.go | ||
| losetup/losetup.go | ||
| ls/ls.go | ||
| mkdir/mkdir.go | ||
| mount/mount.go | ||
| netcat/netcat.go | ||
| ping/ping.go | ||
| printenv/printenv.go | ||
| rm/rm.go | ||
| script/script.go | ||
| seq/seq.go | ||
| sh/{cd.go,parse.go,sh.go,time.go} | ||
| srvfiles/srvfiles.go | ||
| tcz/tcz.go | ||
| tee/tee.go | ||
| uniq/uniq.go | ||
| wc/wc.go | ||
| wget/wget.go | ||
| which/which.go | ||
| pkg/ | ||
| dhcp/ (dhcp package source) | ||
| netlib/ (netlib package source) | ||
| golang.org (import package source) | ||
| /go | src/ | Packages and toolchain |
| pkg/ | tool/linux amd64/{6a,6c,6g,6l} | |
| misc/ | ... | |
| tool/ | ... | |
| bin/ | go | |
| include/ | ... | |
| /lib/ | libc.so | Needed for tinycore linux packages |
| libm.so |
Table 1: Initial layout of a u-root filesystem
Table 2 below shows the layout after /init has run.
| Directory | Subdirectory | Command |
|---|---|---|
| /src | cmds/ | |
| builtin/builtin.go | ||
| /cat.go | ||
| /cmp.go | ||
| comm/comm.go | ||
| cp/cp.go | ||
| date/date.go | ||
| dmesg/dmesg.go | ||
| echo/echo.go | ||
| freq/freq.go | ||
| grep/grep.go | ||
| init/init.go | ||
| installcommand/installcommand.go | ||
| ip/ip.go | ||
| ldd/ldd.go | ||
| losetup/losetup.go | ||
| ls/ls.go | ||
| mkdir/mkdir.go | ||
| mount/mount.go | ||
| netcat/netcat.go | ||
| ping/ping.go | ||
| printenv/printenv.go | ||
| rm/rm.go | ||
| script/script.go | ||
| seq/seq.go | ||
| sh/{cd.go,parse.go,sh.go,time.go} | ||
| srvfiles/srvfiles.go | ||
| tcz/tcz.go | ||
| tee/tee.go | ||
| uniq/uniq.go | ||
| wc/wc.go | ||
| wget/wget.go | ||
| which/which.go | ||
| pkg/ | ||
| dhcp/ (dhcp package source) | ||
| netlib/ (netlib package source) | ||
| golang.org (import package source) | ||
| /go | src/ | Packages and toolchain |
| pkg/ | tool/linux amd64/{6a,6c,6g,6l} | |
| misc/ | ... | |
| tool/ | ... | |
| bin/ | go | |
| include/ | ... | |
| /lib/ | libc.so | Needed for tinycore linux packages |
| libm.so |
Table 2: Layout after /init has run.
/buildbin contains symlinks to enable the on-demand compilation, and other standard directories and mount points are ready.
U-root provides a shell that is stripped down to the fundamentals: it can read commands in using the Go scanner package; it can expand (that is, glob) the command elements, using the Go filepath package, and it can run the resulting commands, either programs or shell builtins. It supports pipelines and IO redirection. At the same time, the shell defines no language of its own for scripting and builtins. Instead, the u-root shell uses the Go compiler. In that sense, the u-root shell reflects a break in important ways with the last few decades of shell development, which has seen shells and their language grow ever more complex and, partially as a result, ever more insecure[19] and fragile[11].
The shell has several builtin commands, and you can extend it with builtin commands of your own. First, you need to understand the basic source structure of u-root shell builtins. Then, you will learn about user-defined builtins.
All shell builtins, including the ones that come with the shell by default, are written with a standard Go init pattern which installs one or more builtins.
Builtins in the shell are defined by a name and a function. One or more builtins can be described in a source file. The name is kept in a map and the map is searched for a command name before looking in the file system. The function must accept a string as a name and a (possibly zero-length) array of string arguments, and return an error. In order to connect the builtin to the map, a programmer must provide an init function which adds the name and function to the map. The init function is special in that it is run by Go when the program starts up. In this case, the init function just installs a builtin for the time command.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 below show the shell builtin for time.
// Package main is the 'root' of the package hierarchy for a program.
// This code is part of the main program, not another package,
// and is declared as package main.
package main
// A Go source file list all the packages on which it has a direct
// dependency.
import (
"fmt"
"os"
"time"
)
// init() is an optional function. If init () is present in a file,
// the Go compiler and runtime arrange for it to be called at
// program startup. It is therefore like a constructor.
func init () {
// addBuiltIn is provided by the u−root shell for the addition of
// builtin commands. Builtins must have a standard type:
// - The first parameter is a string
// - The second is a string array which may be 0 length
// - The return is the Go error type
// In this case, we are creating a builtincalled time that calls
// the timecmd function.
addBuiltIn ( "time " , timecmd )
}
Figure 1: The code for the time builtin, Part I: setup
// The timecmd function is passed the name of a command to run,
// optional arguments, and returns an error. It:
// - gets the starttime using Now from the time package
// - runs the command using the u−root shell runit function
// - computes a duration using Since from the time package
// - if there is an error, prints the error to os.Stderr
// - uses fmt. Printf to print the duration to os.Stderr
// Note that since runtime always handles the error, by printing
// it, it always returns nil. Most builtins return the error.
// Here you can see the usage of the imported packages
// from the imports statement above.
func timecmd (name string, args [] string )
error {
start: = time. Now ()
err := run it (name, args)
if err != nil {
fmt. Fprintf (os. Stderr, ”%v\n”, err)
}
cost := time . Since (start)
fmt.Printf(os.Stderr, ”%v ”,cost)
// This function is special in that it handles the error, and hence
// does not return an error.
// Most other builtins return the error.
return nil
}
Figure 2: The code for the shell time builtin, Part II
To support scripting and builtins, u-root provides two programs: script and builtin. The script program allows users to specify a Go fragment on the command line, and runs that fragment as a program. The builtin program allows a Go fragment to be built into the shell as a new command. Builtins are persistent; the builtin command instantiates a new shell with the new command built in. Scripts run via the script command are not persistent.
A basic hello builtin can be defined on the command line:
builtin hello '{ fmt.Printf("Hello\n") }'
The fragment is defined by the {} pair. Given a fragment that starts with a {, the builtin command generates all the wrapper boiler plate needed. The builtin command is slightly different from the script command in that the Go fragment is bundled into one argument. The command accepts multiple pairs of command name and Go code fragments, allowing multiple new builtin commands to be installed in the shell.
Builtin creates a new shell at /bin/sh with the source at /src/cmds/sh/. Invocations of /bin/sh by this shell and its children will use the new shell.
Processes spawned by this new shell can access the new shell source and can run the builtin command again and create a shell that further extends the new shell. Processes outside the new shell’s process hierarchy can not use this new shell or the builtin source. When the new shell exits, the builtins are no longer visible in any part of the file system. We use Linux mount name spaces to create this effect[22]. Once the builtin command has verified that the Go fragment is valid, it builds a new, private namespace with the shell source, including the new builtin source. From that point on, the new shell and its children will only use the new shell. The parent process and other processes outside the private namespace continue to use the old shell.
Figure 3 below shows an example usage of the script command.
This script implements printenv. Note that it is not a complete Go program in that it lacks a package statement, imports, a main function declaration, and a return at the end. All the boilerplate is added by the script command, which uses the Go imports package to scan the code and create the import statements required for compilation (in this case, both fmt and os packages are imported). Because the u-root shell is so simple, there is no need to escape many of these special characters. The complex parsing tasks have been offloaded to Go. Builtins are implemented in almost the same way. The builtin command takes the Go fragment and creates a standard shell builtin Go source file which conforms to the builtin pattern. This structure is easy to generate programmatically, building on the techniques used for the script command.
script{ fmt.Printf("%v\n", os.Environ()) }
Figure 3: Go fragment for a printenv script. Code structure is inserted and packages are determined automatically.
The u-root shell supports environment variables, but manages them differently than most Unix environments. The variables are maintained in a directory called /env; the file name corresponds to the environment variable name, and the files contents are the value. When it is starting a new process, the shell populates child process environment variables from the /env directory. The syntax is the same; $ followed by a name directs the shell to substitute the value of the variable in the argument by prepending /env to the path and reading the file.
The shell variables described above are relative paths; /env is prepended to them. In the u-root shell, the name can also be an absolute path. For example, the command script $/home/$USER/scripts/hello will substitute the value of the hello script into the command line and then run the script command. The ability to place arbitrary text from a file into an argument is proving to be extremely convenient, especially for script and builtin commands.
No root file system can provide all the packages all users want, and u-root is no exception. You need to have the ability to load external packages from popular Linux distros. The tcz command can be used to load external packages from the TinyCore Linux distribution, also known as tinycore. A tinycore package is a mountable file system image, containing all the package files, including a file listing any additional package dependencies. To load these packages, u-root provides the tcz command which fetches the package and needed dependencies. Hence, if a user wants emacs, they need merely type tcz emacs, and emacs will become available in /usr/local/bin. The tinycore packages directory can be a persistent directory or it can be empty on each boot.
The tcz command is quite flexible as to what packages it loads and where they are loaded from. Users can specify the host name which provides the packages, the TCP port on which to connect, the version of tinycore to use, and the architecture. The tcz command must loopback mount each package as it is fetched, and hence must cache them locally. It will not refetch already cached packages. This cache can be volatile or maintained on more permanent storage. Performance varies depending on the network being used and the number of packages being loaded, but averages about 1 second per package on a WIFI-attached laptop. U-root also provides a small web server, called srvfiles, that can be used to serve locally cached tinycore packages for testing. The entire server is 18 lines of Go.
On-Demand compilation is one of the oldest ideas in computer science. Slimline Open Firmware (SLOF)[7] is a FORTHbased implementation of Open Firmware developed by IBM for some of its Power and Cell processors. SLOF is capable of storing all of Open Firmware as source in the FLASH memory and compiling components to indirect threading on demand[2].
In the last few decades, as our compiler infrastructure has gotten slower and more complex, true on-demand compilation has split into two different forms. First is the on-demand compilation of source into executable byte codes, as in Python. The byte codes are not native but are more efficient than source. If the python interpreter finds the byte code it will interpret that instead of source to provide improved performance. Java takes the process one step further with the Just In Time compilation of byte code to machine code[20] to boost performance.
The LinuxBIOS project[14][1], together with clustermatic[25], used an embedded kernel and simple root file system to manage supercomputing clusters. Due to space constraints of 1 MiB or less of FLASH, clusters embedded only a single-processor Linux kernel with a daemon. The daemon was a network bootloader that downloaded a more complex SMP kernel and root file system and started them. Clusters built this way were able to boot 1024 nodes in the time it took the standard PXE network boot firmware to find a working network interface.
Early versions of One Laptop Per Child used LinuxBIOS, with Linux in flash as a boot loader, to boot the eventual target. This system was very handy, as they were able to embed a full WIFI stack in flash with Linux, and could boot test OLPC images over WIFI. The continuing growth of the Linux kernel, coupled with the small FLASH size on OLPC, eventually led OLPC to move to Open Firmware.
AlphaPower shipped their Alpha nodes with a so-called Direct Boot Linux, or DBLX. This work was never published, but the code was partially released on sourceforge.net just as AlphaPower went out of business. Compaq also worked with a Linux-As-Bootloader for the iPaq.
Car computers and other embedded ARM systems frequently contain a kernel and an ext2 formatted file system in NOR FLASH, that is, FLASH that can be treated as memory instead of a block device. Many of these kernels use the so-called eXecute In Place[3] (XIP) patch, which allows the kernel to page binaries directly from the memory-addressable FLASH rather than copying it to RAM, providing a significant savings in system startup time. A downside of this approach is that the executables can not be compressed, which puts further pressure on the need to optimize binary size. NOR FLASH is very slow, and paging from it comes at a significant performance cost. Finally, an uncompressed binary image stored in NOR FLASH has a much higher monetary cost than the same image stored in RAM since the cost per bit is so much higher.
UEFI[12] contains a non-Linux kernel (the UEFI firmware binary) and a full set of drivers, file systems, network protocol stacks, and command binaries in the firmware image. It is a full operating system environment realized as firmware.
The ONIE project[23] is a more recent realization of the Kernel-in-FLASH idea, based on Linux. ONIE packs a Linux kernel and Busybox binaries into a very small package. Since the Linux build process allows an initial RAM file system (initramfs) to be built directly into the kernel binary, some companies are now embedding ONIE images into FLASH with coreboot. Sage Engineering has shown a bzImage with a small Busybox packed into a 4M image. ONIE has brought new life to an old idea: packaging a kernel and small set of binaries in FLASH to create a fast, capable boot system.
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[2] (AUTHOR OF SLOF), S. B. Personal conversation.
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[23] VARIOUS. No papers have been published on onie; see onie.org.
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