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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<search>
<entry>
<title>ECO101-Notes</title>
<link href="/Notes/Eco101-Notes/"/>
<url>/Notes/Eco101-Notes/</url>
<content type="html"><![CDATA[<h1 id="Introduction-and-Disclaimer"><a href="#Introduction-and-Disclaimer" class="headerlink" title="Introduction and Disclaimer"></a>Introduction and Disclaimer</h1><p>This note is based on ECO101: <em>Principles of Microeconomics</em> (Fall 2024), University of Toronto, Department of Economics, taught by Professor Loren Brandt.</p><p>Textbook: <em>Krugman, P., Wells, R., Au, I., & Parkinson, J. (2021). Microeconomics (4th Canadian ed.). Worth Publishers</em>.<br>Available at <a href="https://www.uoftbookstore.com/product/404970?quantity=1&product_type=11&srsltid=AfmBOoqovta4tRIARJZEg_UCldhYGpkY6bTfqZ2GLeSLcnw13LtBaLqL">UofTBookStore</a>, you can also borrow this book from UofT Library</p><p>This note may contain portions derived from lecture materials copyrighted by Professor Loren Brandt, University of Toronto. For concerns regarding intellectual property rights, please contact me at <a href="mailto:hi@chrisxn.com">hi@chrisxn.com</a>.</p><p>This note is shared <strong>for personal study and non-commercial purposes only</strong>. Any user who republishes, redistributes, or modifies this content must also follow the same conditions. Users are fully responsible for any potential legal risks associated with their actions.</p><h1 id="Part-I-Thinking-Like-an-Economist"><a href="#Part-I-Thinking-Like-an-Economist" class="headerlink" title="Part I. Thinking Like an Economist"></a>Part I. Thinking Like an Economist</h1><h2 id="Opportunity-Cost"><a href="#Opportunity-Cost" class="headerlink" title="Opportunity Cost"></a>Opportunity Cost</h2><p>Definition: What one forgoes (gives up) by not taking the best alternative action</p><ul><li>Opportunity Cost = explicit cost + implicit cost<ul><li>Explicit cost: Price needed for doing this</li><li>Implicit cost: Net value of the best alternative option (Revenue-Cost)</li></ul></li><li>Opportunity cost of A = Cost of A + (Benefit of B – Cost of B)</li><li>Example: Go swimming instand of hanging out with a friend. -> Oppotunity cost = cost of swimming + benefit of hanging out - cost</li></ul><h3 id="Make-decisions"><a href="#Make-decisions" class="headerlink" title="Make decisions"></a>Make decisions</h3><p>Precondition to do sth: If and only if the benefit >= Oppotunity cost (Implicit + Explicit)<br>If there’re several options, choose the one with smallest Oppotunity cost</p><h2 id="Marginal-Analysis"><a href="#Marginal-Analysis" class="headerlink" title="Marginal Analysis"></a>Marginal Analysis</h2><h3 id="Marginal-Cost-and-Benefit"><a href="#Marginal-Cost-and-Benefit" class="headerlink" title="Marginal Cost and Benefit"></a>Marginal Cost and Benefit</h3><p>Undertake activity if marginal (additional) benefit exceeds marginal (additional) cost</p><ul><li>Marginal Cost = Total cost (n) - Total cost (n-1)</li><li>Marginal benefit = Total benefit (n) - Total benefit (n-1)</li></ul><h3 id="Sunk-Cost"><a href="#Sunk-Cost" class="headerlink" title="Sunk Cost"></a>Sunk Cost</h3><p>Defination: Cost that already happened and cannot be avoided regardless of any action taken</p><h1 id="Part-II-Gains-from-Trade"><a href="#Part-II-Gains-from-Trade" class="headerlink" title="Part II. Gains from Trade"></a>Part II. Gains from Trade</h1><h2 id="Production-Possibilities-Frontier-PPF"><a href="#Production-Possibilities-Frontier-PPF" class="headerlink" title="Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF)"></a>Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF)</h2><p>The <strong>Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF)</strong> is a fundamental concept in microeconomics that illustrates the trade-offs an economy faces when allocating limited resources between the production of two goods.</p><h3 id="Assumptions"><a href="#Assumptions" class="headerlink" title="Assumptions"></a>Assumptions</h3><ul><li><strong>Scarcity of resources</strong>: Resources (land, labor, capital) are limited.</li><li><strong>Constant technology</strong>: No improvement or decline in technology.</li><li><strong>Two goods</strong>: The economy produces only two types of goods (a simplified model).</li><li><strong>Full efficiency</strong>: All resources are fully and efficiently utilized.</li><li><strong>Resource mobility</strong>: Resources can shift freely between the two goods.</li></ul><h3 id="Characteristics-of-the-PPF"><a href="#Characteristics-of-the-PPF" class="headerlink" title="Characteristics of the PPF"></a>Characteristics of the PPF</h3><p><strong>Shape</strong>:</p><ul><li>The PPF is typically <strong>bowed outwards (concave)</strong> due to the <strong>law of increasing opportunity costs</strong>.</li><li>As production of one good increases, the opportunity cost of producing additional units rises because resources are not equally efficient in producing both goods.</li></ul><p><strong>Points on the PPF</strong>:</p><ul><li><strong>On the curve</strong>: Represents <strong>productive efficiency</strong>, where all resources are fully utilized.</li><li><strong>Inside the curve</strong>: Represents <strong>inefficiency</strong> (e.g., unemployment or misallocated resources).</li><li><strong>Outside the curve</strong>: Represents an <strong>unattainable level</strong> of production given current resources and technology.</li></ul><p><strong>Opportunity Cost</strong>:</p><ul><li><strong>Opportunity cost</strong> is reflected in the <strong>slope of the PPF</strong>. Moving from one point to another along the curve shows how much of one good must be sacrificed to produce more of the other good.</li></ul><h2 id="Trade"><a href="#Trade" class="headerlink" title="Trade"></a>Trade</h2><p>Definition: The exchange of goods and services between parties</p><h3 id="Core-Idea"><a href="#Core-Idea" class="headerlink" title="Core Idea"></a>Core Idea</h3><ul><li>Trade occurs when goods with <strong>lower opportunity costs</strong> are exchanged for goods with <strong>higher opportunity costs</strong>.</li><li>The key concept lies in comparing <strong>opportunity costs (OC)</strong> between trading parties.</li></ul><h3 id="Absolute-Advantage-Higher-efficiency"><a href="#Absolute-Advantage-Higher-efficiency" class="headerlink" title="Absolute Advantage (Higher efficiency)"></a>Absolute Advantage (Higher efficiency)</h3><ul><li>Using fewer resources (Time) than other countries or individuals or produces more of a good with the same resources (Time)</li></ul><p>KEY: Whoever can produce goods with the least amount of resources or the fastest speed has an absolute advantage</p><h3 id="Comparative-advantage-Lower-opportunitiy-cost"><a href="#Comparative-advantage-Lower-opportunitiy-cost" class="headerlink" title="Comparative advantage (Lower opportunitiy cost)"></a>Comparative advantage (Lower opportunitiy cost)</h3><ul><li>Comparative advantage is relative, and even if a country does not have an absolute advantage in all commodities, it can trade in a mutually beneficial way through comparative advantage</li></ul><p>KEY: Countries or individuals should focus on producing goods with the lowest opportunity cost and then trade them to achieve the optimal allocation of resources.</p><h3 id="Trade-Ratio"><a href="#Trade-Ratio" class="headerlink" title="Trade Ratio"></a>Trade Ratio</h3><p>The <strong>trade ratio</strong> must satisfy the condition that it lies between the <strong>minimum compensation</strong> for the exporter and the <strong>maximum willingness to pay</strong> for the importer, ensuring a mutually beneficial trade.</p><h1 id="Part-III-Supply-Demand-and-Competitive-Markets"><a href="#Part-III-Supply-Demand-and-Competitive-Markets" class="headerlink" title="Part III. Supply, Demand and Competitive Markets"></a>Part III. Supply, Demand and Competitive Markets</h1><h2 id="Competitive-Markets"><a href="#Competitive-Markets" class="headerlink" title="Competitive Markets"></a>Competitive Markets</h2><ul><li>These markets consist of many buyers and sellers, each of whom is too small to influence the overall market price. This means that no single participant can set or affect the market price.</li></ul><h3 id="Buyers-in-Competitive-Markets"><a href="#Buyers-in-Competitive-Markets" class="headerlink" title="Buyers in Competitive Markets"></a>Buyers in Competitive Markets</h3><ul><li>Each buyer is small relative to the market, meaning they can purchase as much as they want without affecting the market price.</li><li>The implication for the buyer is that the marginal cost (MC) of buying one more unit is equal to the market price <mjx-container class="MathJax" jax="SVG"><svg style="vertical-align: -0.357ex;" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="5.04ex" height="1.927ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewBox="0 -694 2227.8 851.8" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><defs><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D443" d="M287 628Q287 635 230 637Q206 637 199 638T192 648Q192 649 194 659Q200 679 203 681T397 683Q587 682 600 680Q664 669 707 631T751 530Q751 453 685 389Q616 321 507 303Q500 302 402 301H307L277 182Q247 66 247 59Q247 55 248 54T255 50T272 48T305 46H336Q342 37 342 35Q342 19 335 5Q330 0 319 0Q316 0 282 1T182 2Q120 2 87 2T51 1Q33 1 33 11Q33 13 36 25Q40 41 44 43T67 46Q94 46 127 49Q141 52 146 61Q149 65 218 339T287 628ZM645 554Q645 567 643 575T634 597T609 619T560 635Q553 636 480 637Q463 637 445 637T416 636T404 636Q391 635 386 627Q384 621 367 550T332 412T314 344Q314 342 395 342H407H430Q542 342 590 392Q617 419 631 471T645 554Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D45A" d="M21 287Q22 293 24 303T36 341T56 388T88 425T132 442T175 435T205 417T221 395T229 376L231 369Q231 367 232 367L243 378Q303 442 384 442Q401 442 415 440T441 433T460 423T475 411T485 398T493 385T497 373T500 364T502 357L510 367Q573 442 659 442Q713 442 746 415T780 336Q780 285 742 178T704 50Q705 36 709 31T724 26Q752 26 776 56T815 138Q818 149 821 151T837 153Q857 153 857 145Q857 144 853 130Q845 101 831 73T785 17T716 -10Q669 -10 648 17T627 73Q627 92 663 193T700 345Q700 404 656 404H651Q565 404 506 303L499 291L466 157Q433 26 428 16Q415 -11 385 -11Q372 -11 364 -4T353 8T350 18Q350 29 384 161L420 307Q423 322 423 345Q423 404 379 404H374Q288 404 229 303L222 291L189 157Q156 26 151 16Q138 -11 108 -11Q95 -11 87 -5T76 7T74 17Q74 30 112 181Q151 335 151 342Q154 357 154 369Q154 405 129 405Q107 405 92 377T69 316T57 280Q55 278 41 278H27Q21 284 21 287Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D458" d="M121 647Q121 657 125 670T137 683Q138 683 209 688T282 694Q294 694 294 686Q294 679 244 477Q194 279 194 272Q213 282 223 291Q247 309 292 354T362 415Q402 442 438 442Q468 442 485 423T503 369Q503 344 496 327T477 302T456 291T438 288Q418 288 406 299T394 328Q394 353 410 369T442 390L458 393Q446 405 434 405H430Q398 402 367 380T294 316T228 255Q230 254 243 252T267 246T293 238T320 224T342 206T359 180T365 147Q365 130 360 106T354 66Q354 26 381 26Q429 26 459 145Q461 153 479 153H483Q499 153 499 144Q499 139 496 130Q455 -11 378 -11Q333 -11 305 15T277 90Q277 108 280 121T283 145Q283 167 269 183T234 206T200 217T182 220H180Q168 178 159 139T145 81T136 44T129 20T122 7T111 -2Q98 -11 83 -11Q66 -11 57 -1T48 16Q48 26 85 176T158 471L195 616Q196 629 188 632T149 637H144Q134 637 131 637T124 640T121 647Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D461" d="M26 385Q19 392 19 395Q19 399 22 411T27 425Q29 430 36 430T87 431H140L159 511Q162 522 166 540T173 566T179 586T187 603T197 615T211 624T229 626Q247 625 254 615T261 596Q261 589 252 549T232 470L222 433Q222 431 272 431H323Q330 424 330 420Q330 398 317 385H210L174 240Q135 80 135 68Q135 26 162 26Q197 26 230 60T283 144Q285 150 288 151T303 153H307Q322 153 322 145Q322 142 319 133Q314 117 301 95T267 48T216 6T155 -11Q125 -11 98 4T59 56Q57 64 57 83V101L92 241Q127 382 128 383Q128 385 77 385H26Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math"><g data-mml-node="msub"><g data-mml-node="mi"><use data-c="1D443" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D443"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(675,-150) scale(0.707)"><use data-c="1D45A" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D45A"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(1345.8,0)"><use data-c="1D458" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D458"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(1866.8,0)"><use data-c="1D461" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D461"></use></g></g></g></svg></mjx-container>. In other words, the buyer faces the same price regardless of how many units they decide to purchase.</li></ul><h3 id="Sellers-in-Competitive-Markets"><a href="#Sellers-in-Competitive-Markets" class="headerlink" title="Sellers in Competitive Markets"></a>Sellers in Competitive Markets</h3><ul><li>Similarly, each seller is small relative to the market and can sell as much as they want without influencing the market price.</li><li>The implication for the seller is that the marginal benefit (MB) of selling one more unit is also equal to the market price <mjx-container class="MathJax" jax="SVG"><svg style="vertical-align: -0.357ex;" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="5.04ex" height="1.927ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewBox="0 -694 2227.8 851.8" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><defs><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D443" d="M287 628Q287 635 230 637Q206 637 199 638T192 648Q192 649 194 659Q200 679 203 681T397 683Q587 682 600 680Q664 669 707 631T751 530Q751 453 685 389Q616 321 507 303Q500 302 402 301H307L277 182Q247 66 247 59Q247 55 248 54T255 50T272 48T305 46H336Q342 37 342 35Q342 19 335 5Q330 0 319 0Q316 0 282 1T182 2Q120 2 87 2T51 1Q33 1 33 11Q33 13 36 25Q40 41 44 43T67 46Q94 46 127 49Q141 52 146 61Q149 65 218 339T287 628ZM645 554Q645 567 643 575T634 597T609 619T560 635Q553 636 480 637Q463 637 445 637T416 636T404 636Q391 635 386 627Q384 621 367 550T332 412T314 344Q314 342 395 342H407H430Q542 342 590 392Q617 419 631 471T645 554Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D45A" d="M21 287Q22 293 24 303T36 341T56 388T88 425T132 442T175 435T205 417T221 395T229 376L231 369Q231 367 232 367L243 378Q303 442 384 442Q401 442 415 440T441 433T460 423T475 411T485 398T493 385T497 373T500 364T502 357L510 367Q573 442 659 442Q713 442 746 415T780 336Q780 285 742 178T704 50Q705 36 709 31T724 26Q752 26 776 56T815 138Q818 149 821 151T837 153Q857 153 857 145Q857 144 853 130Q845 101 831 73T785 17T716 -10Q669 -10 648 17T627 73Q627 92 663 193T700 345Q700 404 656 404H651Q565 404 506 303L499 291L466 157Q433 26 428 16Q415 -11 385 -11Q372 -11 364 -4T353 8T350 18Q350 29 384 161L420 307Q423 322 423 345Q423 404 379 404H374Q288 404 229 303L222 291L189 157Q156 26 151 16Q138 -11 108 -11Q95 -11 87 -5T76 7T74 17Q74 30 112 181Q151 335 151 342Q154 357 154 369Q154 405 129 405Q107 405 92 377T69 316T57 280Q55 278 41 278H27Q21 284 21 287Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D458" d="M121 647Q121 657 125 670T137 683Q138 683 209 688T282 694Q294 694 294 686Q294 679 244 477Q194 279 194 272Q213 282 223 291Q247 309 292 354T362 415Q402 442 438 442Q468 442 485 423T503 369Q503 344 496 327T477 302T456 291T438 288Q418 288 406 299T394 328Q394 353 410 369T442 390L458 393Q446 405 434 405H430Q398 402 367 380T294 316T228 255Q230 254 243 252T267 246T293 238T320 224T342 206T359 180T365 147Q365 130 360 106T354 66Q354 26 381 26Q429 26 459 145Q461 153 479 153H483Q499 153 499 144Q499 139 496 130Q455 -11 378 -11Q333 -11 305 15T277 90Q277 108 280 121T283 145Q283 167 269 183T234 206T200 217T182 220H180Q168 178 159 139T145 81T136 44T129 20T122 7T111 -2Q98 -11 83 -11Q66 -11 57 -1T48 16Q48 26 85 176T158 471L195 616Q196 629 188 632T149 637H144Q134 637 131 637T124 640T121 647Z"></path><path id="MJX-1-TEX-I-1D461" d="M26 385Q19 392 19 395Q19 399 22 411T27 425Q29 430 36 430T87 431H140L159 511Q162 522 166 540T173 566T179 586T187 603T197 615T211 624T229 626Q247 625 254 615T261 596Q261 589 252 549T232 470L222 433Q222 431 272 431H323Q330 424 330 420Q330 398 317 385H210L174 240Q135 80 135 68Q135 26 162 26Q197 26 230 60T283 144Q285 150 288 151T303 153H307Q322 153 322 145Q322 142 319 133Q314 117 301 95T267 48T216 6T155 -11Q125 -11 98 4T59 56Q57 64 57 83V101L92 241Q127 382 128 383Q128 385 77 385H26Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math"><g data-mml-node="msub"><g data-mml-node="mi"><use data-c="1D443" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D443"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(675,-150) scale(0.707)"><use data-c="1D45A" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D45A"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(1345.8,0)"><use data-c="1D458" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D458"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mi" transform="translate(1866.8,0)"><use data-c="1D461" xlink:href="#MJX-1-TEX-I-1D461"></use></g></g></g></svg></mjx-container>, as the seller receives the same price for each additional unit sold.</li></ul><h2 id="Law-of-downward-sloping-demand"><a href="#Law-of-downward-sloping-demand" class="headerlink" title="Law of downward sloping demand"></a>Law of downward sloping demand</h2><p>A relationship between market price and quantity demanded. All else being equal, as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa.</p><h3 id="Demand-Schedule"><a href="#Demand-Schedule" class="headerlink" title="Demand Schedule"></a>Demand Schedule</h3><ul><li>It represents how much of a good consumers are willing to buy at various price points.</li><li>For example, when the price is higher, fewer units are demanded, whereas a lower price leads to higher demand.</li></ul><h3 id="Economic-Principle"><a href="#Economic-Principle" class="headerlink" title="Economic Principle"></a>Economic Principle</h3><ul><li>This relationship reflects the inverse correlation between price and quantity demanded.</li><li>As prices rise, the purchasing power of consumers decreases, and they tend to buy less.</li><li>Conversely, as prices fall, the good becomes more affordable, leading to an increase in demand.</li></ul><p><img src="https://content.chrisxn.com/2024/94bdddc5fdbbcff8a82779e270844df6" alt="Demand Curve example"></p>]]></content>
<categories>
<category>Notes</category>
</categories>
</entry>
<entry>
<title>Difference between Language and Dialect</title>
<link href="/Articles/Language-and-Dialect/"/>
<url>/Articles/Language-and-Dialect/</url>
<content type="html"><![CDATA[<h1 id="1-Introduction"><a href="#1-Introduction" class="headerlink" title="1. Introduction"></a>1. Introduction</h1><p>In class, we discussed about the Language and Dialect. They all evolved from some kind of language but in the end, they may have different characteristics and uses.</p><p>Some languages are barely intelligible to each other but are considered dialects. There are languages that can understand and communicate with each other but are two different languages.</p><p>Russian and Ukrainian seem to be mutually intelligible, but they are considered two languages. Cantonese and Wu are considered to be branches of Chinese, but they are not the same as other dialects, as well as Mandarin, the standard language of modern Chinese.</p><p>The study will begin with the social and historical evolution of language, examining how languages and dialects have been distinguished, and the impact of languages and dialects in modern social life.</p><h1 id="2-Reference-articles"><a href="#2-Reference-articles" class="headerlink" title="2. Reference articles"></a>2. Reference articles</h1><h2 id="1-How-to-Define-Dialect-and-Language-A-Proposal-for-Further-Discussion"><a href="#1-How-to-Define-Dialect-and-Language-A-Proposal-for-Further-Discussion" class="headerlink" title="#1- How to Define Dialect and Language - A Proposal for Further Discussion"></a>#1- How to Define Dialect and Language - A Proposal for Further Discussion</h2><p> <em><strong>(Linguistische Berichte, 2009-08, Vol.2009 (219))</strong></em></p><p>The article discusses scopes and definitions of language and dialect from demographic, biological, and sociological perspectives. The authors have criticized several doctrines inthe field of linguistics. Specifically, the authors note limitations in several of the currently available views, such as historical, political, and war-induced factors. These factors go beyond linguistics itself and should be excluded from linguistic studies. </p><p>Many languages that were once identical or similar have been artificially segmented as a result of recent wars and the emergence of modern concepts such as state and politics. In the article, the Chinese and German have been used as the examples used for proving the above opinions.</p><h2 id="2-Dialectology"><a href="#2-Dialectology" class="headerlink" title="#2- Dialectology"></a>#2- Dialectology</h2><p><em><strong>(J.K. Chambers and Peter Trudgill, Cambridge University Press)</strong></em></p><p>The book discussed about the definition and common misconceptions about dialects. In common usage, a ‘dialect’ is often considered to be a low-level, non-standardized form of language, as opposed to a ‘standard language’. However, linguists consider every formof language to be a dialect, including standard languages (such as Standard English). No one dialect is linguistically superior to another.</p><p>For example, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish are often considered distinct languages, butare interoperable with each other. German, on the other hand, is a single language, butsome German dialects are not interoperable with each other. Interoperability is also influenced by education, frequency of contact, and social attitudes (e.g. political or cultural resistance)</p><h3 id="Language-Dialects-and-Accents"><a href="#Language-Dialects-and-Accents" class="headerlink" title="Language, Dialects and Accents"></a>Language, Dialects and Accents</h3><p>Dialect has been reflected in grammatical, lexical and phonetic differences. Accent refersonly to differences in pronunciation. ‘Language’ is usually a non-technical term, closely related to political, geographical, historical and cultural factors.</p><h3 id="Autonomy-and-Heteronomy"><a href="#Autonomy-and-Heteronomy" class="headerlink" title="Autonomy and Heteronomy"></a>Autonomy and Heteronomy</h3><p>Whether a dialect is considered a language or not often depends on whether it is autonomous. Specifically, Norwegian historically separated from Danish to become an independent language. In contrast, Scots has gradually been recognized as a dialect of English over the last two centuries. In this way, the division between ‘dialect’ and ‘language’ should not be made absolute, but rather a complicated and interdependent product based on political, social and historical factors. This indicates that the concepts are often progressive and ambiguous in linguistics.</p><h2 id="3-Language-and-dialect-between-past-and-future"><a href="#3-Language-and-dialect-between-past-and-future" class="headerlink" title="#3- Language and dialect between past and future"></a>#3- Language and dialect between past and future</h2><p><em><strong>(Van Rooy, Raf, Language or Dialect, 2020; Oxford: Oxford University Press)</strong></em></p><p>The article describes the differences between language and dialect in terms of linguistic features and describes the changes in dialect studies from early to modern times. The article focuses on the internal features of the language, such as vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar.</p><p>The article points out that the distinction between languages and dialects did not originatein ancient Greece but was a product of the Renaissance in the 16th century. Humanists developed the concept by rediscovering ancient Greek scholarship. Following this, in the 16th and 17th centuries, scholars’ definitions of language and dialect became clearer.</p><p>Dialect was considered a secondary concept subordinate to language and its geographicaland regional characteristics were emphasized. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, scholars began to focus on the linguistic differences between related dialects and how they could be distinguished from different languages.</p><p>With the rise of geo-linguistics since the 19th century, scholars have come to realize thatthe boundaries between language and dialect are potentially arbitrary. The subsequent riseof structuralism and generative grammar made the study of language more concerned with the macroscopic rules of language, gradually ignoring microscopic variations of dialects.</p><p>Some different views have also been put forward in the article, and some scholars argued that the boundary between dialect and language is blurred, and that differences in a few features alone are not enough to distinguish them completely.</p><h1 id="3-Discussion"><a href="#3-Discussion" class="headerlink" title="3. Discussion"></a>3. Discussion</h1><p>People started to learn about themselves since an early age. Language, as the tool ofcommunication, it would be an important part of human beings’ ability to establish group living relationships.</p><p>Linguists try to analyze language through different perspectives. Some studies take the origin of species in biology as an entry point and use the idea of species evolution in biology to try to explain the development of language. There are also studies that use human psychology and sociology to analyze how language has changed over the course of the human history. It is undeniable that linguistics, like human biology, still has not come to a unified conclusion on some of its history. Nonetheless, several viewpoints have emerged, and even though linguists are still arguing about them, they are all more logically complete, while each has some staunch supporters.</p><p>Traditionally, dialects have been considered a lower form of language. This claim has been challenged because it is argued that all forms of language can be considered dialects and that no form of language is superior. At the same time, there is also another definition of dialect based on the “biologically based linguistic research” mentioned in the previous article: “A DIALECT consists of groups of mutually comprehensible I-languages”</p><p>From this, it seems that there are many ways of interpreting the study of dialects and languages, and although we cannot clearly discern whether they are correct or incorrect, we can learn from what they have in common some facts that are recognized by linguists.</p><h2 id="1-The-commonality-of-geography-and-dialect"><a href="#1-The-commonality-of-geography-and-dialect" class="headerlink" title="1. The commonality of geography and dialect"></a>1. The commonality of geography and dialect</h2><p>Many linguists agree that dialects are linguistic variants that is limited by its geographic range. <em>Erasmus Schmidt</em> and <em>Petrus Antesignanus</em> explicitly associate dialects with geographicareas. Since humans are the users and carriers of language, human activity is decisive fordialect change. Geographic barriers, including the mountains, rivers, and social isolation, such as differencesin culture, economic activities, will lead to gradual evolution of languages into different dialects in different regions.</p><p>The geographical meaning of “dialect” was not common until the mid-sixteenth century, andafter 1550 this interpretation gradually emerged. Clement of Alexandria, first published in 1550, defines a “ diálektos ” as a locally marked speech. Petrus Antesignanus’ workCommentary on Greek Grammar (1554) and Conrad Gessne’’s work Mithridates (1555) quickly spread this geographical reading.</p><p>Linguists illustrate this feature with several examples. For example, Differences in dialects in different parts of Germany can result in people 30 miles apart not being able to understand each other. Georg Wenker’s work Sprachatlas des Deutschen Reichs is the first dialect atlasto present a comprehensive overview of German language variants.</p><p>Modern linguists have begun to use more advanced techniques to study the influence of geography on dialects, such as computer modeling and map analysis to further analyze the distribution of linguistic variants. At the same time, research has also included how the sociolinguistic concept of the linguistic continuum extends geographic dialect variation into a larger theoretical framework.</p><p>At the same time, some linguists have raised the question whether the influence of geographyon dialects will diminish as man kind’s technological level increases in a modern society characterized by globalization and well-developed means of transportation, although there is no clear evidence to support this hypothesis.</p><h2 id="2-Evolution-of-dialects-through-historical-change"><a href="#2-Evolution-of-dialects-through-historical-change" class="headerlink" title="2. Evolution of dialects through historical change"></a>2. Evolution of dialects through historical change</h2><p>Dialects usually originate from some common linguistic ancestor. Over time, geographic isolation, social differentiation and cultural change led to the differentiation of languages and the formation of different dialects.</p><p>For example, the Indo-European family of languages was initially considered to be a unified language system, but as humans migrated to different regions, it gradually evolved into different language branches, such as Germanic, Romance and Slavic. Further differentiation within these languages resulted in the formation of several dialects.</p><p>Centralized states tend to promote standard languages, a process of standardization that can suppress the status of local dialects, but at the same time allow some dialects to retain aspecific regional identity. For example, the promotion of standardized French in France under Louis XIV through the Académie Française had a significant impact on the use of local dialects such as Langue d’oc and Langue d’oïl.</p><p>Industrialization and urbanization: The development of modern Europe was the focus of all mankind at the time. In particular, the achievements of the First and Second Industrial Revolutions laid the foundation for modern industrial development throughout the world. The Industrial Revolution and urbanization brought about population movements, leading to increased interaction of languages and dialects, and the consequent gradual weakening of certain local dialects.</p><p>Global population movements during the colonial period are also a good example of there sulting dialectal changes. European languages spread around the world with the colonizersand evolved into new variants in different environments. For example, Spanish evolved into dialects significantly different from European Spanish in various Latin American countries, and English developed distinct local variants in India, Africa and the Caribbean.</p><p>Impact of political activities on language: Since the founding of New China, Putonghua (Mandarin) has been promoted as the official language of the country, gradually replacinglocal dialects in public life. Especially in education and the media, the popularization of Putonghua has significantly reduced the space for the use of dialects. During the Soviet period, despite the ostensible promotion of national language education, the promotion of Russian asa unifying language actually suppressed the use of local dialects and national languages.</p><p>At the same time, we can find examples of political activities that have turned dialects into languages: after the Korean War, the originally unified Korea was split into two countries, South Korea and North Korea. The languages of the Korean peninsula were once considered to be the same language, and the languages of the different regions were considered to be dialectal offshoots of the Korean language. However, after the split both governments have declared their own branches to be one language.</p><p>Currently linguists still believe that the two languages are practically the same, but in the last few decades South Korea has absorbed a larger number of foreign words, and if North Korea’sclosed-door policy is continued, it is foreseeable that in the future this could lead to a large gap between the two languages, or even to two different languages linguistically, as in the case of Ukrainian and Russian.</p><h2 id="3-The-Future-of-Dialects"><a href="#3-The-Future-of-Dialects" class="headerlink" title="3. The Future of Dialects"></a>3. The Future of Dialects</h2><p>Trends in the Context of Globalization and Technologization: With the rapid development of globalization and modern technology, the future of dialects faces new challenges and opportunities. Dialects may either die out as a result of the suppression of standard languages and the turn of the younger generation or be revitalized by technology and cultural renaissance.</p><p>The UNESCO estimates that there are more than 6,000 languages in the world, about half of which could disappear by the end of the 21st century. Many of these endangered language sare dialects.</p><p>There is much can be done to ensure dialectal diversity, such as trying to promote Mandarin while using the standard language in cultural activities and education. In practice, dialects have been used to demonstrate the uniqueness of local cultures. For example, the Venetian dialect in Italy is used in international film festivals as a symbol of Italian culture. For instance, the Chinese Cantonese is widely known for the internationalization of Hong Kong cinema and Cantonese pop music.</p><p>The future of dialects is full of challenges and opportunities as well. Through the two-way interaction of cultural revival, technical support and globalization, dialects can find a balance between endangerment and revival. Dialects should be considered as both the object of linguistic research, and central element of cultural diversity, since the preservation and development are essential for the continuation of the cultural heritage of mankind.</p><h1 id="4-References-in-Article"><a href="#4-References-in-Article" class="headerlink" title="4. References in Article"></a>4. References in Article</h1><p>(i). <em>Dialectology, J. K. Chambers, University of Toronto, Peter Trudgill, Université de Lausanne, Switzerland, Cambridge University Press.</em><br>Link: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991106881130406196&context=L&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialectology&offset=0">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991106881130406196&context=L&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialectology&offset=0</a></p><p>(ii). <em>How to Define Dialect and Language - A Proposal for Further Discussion. WEISS, Helmut Linguistische Berichte, 2009-08, Vol.2009 (219)</em><br>Link: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_85714813&context=PC&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Primo%20Central&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialect%20and%20language&offset=0">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_85714813&context=PC&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Primo%20Central&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialect%20and%20language&offset=0</a></p><p>(iii). <em>CH.2 Background- Dialect geography, Dialectology, J. K. Chambers, University of Toronto, Peter Trudgill, Université de Lausanne, Switzerland, Cambridge University Press.</em><br>Link: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991106881130406196&context=L&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialectology&offset=0">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991106881130406196&context=L&vid=01UTORONTO_INST:UTORONTO&lang=en&search_scope=UTL_AND_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,Dialectology&offset=0</a></p><p>(iv). <em>History of the Venice Film Festival- La Biennale di Venezia (Official Website)</em></p><p><a href="https://content.chrisxn.com/2024/fc4d36b391f8fcd07e42ce68c6f4fbc1">Download .pdf raw file</a><br>md5 for the pdf file: fc4d36b391f8fcd07e42ce68c6f4fbc1</p>]]></content>
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<entry>
<title>Hello World</title>
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<content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>Welcome! I’m Chris Xuning Li. This is my very first post. </p><h3 id="Create-a-new-post"><a href="#Create-a-new-post" class="headerlink" title="Create a new post"></a>Create a new post</h3><figure class="highlight bash"><table><tr><td class="gutter"><pre><span class="line">1</span><br></pre></td><td class="code"><pre><code class="hljs bash">$ <span class="hljs-string">"My New Post"</span><br></code></pre></td></tr></table></figure><p>This is my new perosonal website. I used to write with WordPress, but It’s time to learn something new!</p><h3 id="server"><a href="#server" class="headerlink" title="server"></a>server</h3><figure class="highlight bash"><table><tr><td class="gutter"><pre><span class="line">1</span><br></pre></td><td class="code"><pre><code class="hljs bash">$ Start server<br></code></pre></td></tr></table></figure><p>The website is based on Hexo blog and Theme cupertino. Powered by <code>GitHub Pages</code> and <code>Cloudflare</code></p>]]></content>
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