左二右六规则:
- 限定词 + 形容词 + 中心名词 + 右置定语 (介词短语, 分词短语, 形容词短语, 不定式短语, 定语从句, 同位语从句)
名词是用来表示人, 事物, 地点以及抽象事物的名称的(A noun is the name of a person or thing.)
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专有名词
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人名头衔
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著作名称
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月份
January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
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星期
Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday.
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节日
Christmas, Easter, New Year's Day, Mother's Day, Thanksgiving Day等.
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地理名称
国家及大洲的名称
- America, Africa, Europe, Asia, England, Scotland, China, Peru, Albania等.
地区, 城市的名称
- Rome, Vancouver, Beijing, Florence, California, Florida等.
江, 河, 湖泊的名称
- the Atlantic, the Dead Sea, the Pacific, Lake Victoria, Lake Michigan, the Rhine, the Thames, the Nile等.
山脉, 沙漠的名称
- the Himalayas, the Alps, the Sahara
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普通名词
- 可数名词
- 不可数名词
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对于一些无法分割的名词, 我们将其看作一个整体, 因而作为不可数名词, 没有复数变化(Nouns that have no distinct, separate parts, we look as the whole.)
气体: air, fog, oxygen, smoke等.
液体: beer, blood, coffee, cream, gasoline, honey, juice, milk, oil, tea, water, wine等.
固体: bread, butter, cheese, ice, ice cream, meat, beef (牛肉), chicken (鸡肉), fish (鱼肉), chalk, copper, cotton, glass, gold, iron, paper
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一些因其组成部分太小而不易数的名词(nouns that have parts that are too small or insignificant to count)用作不可数名词
corn 玉米 * grass草 * hair 头发 * popcorn 爆米花 * rice 大米 * salt 盐 * sand 沙 * snow雪 * sugar 糖
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表示总称的名词(nouns that are classes or categories of things)通常不可数. 这些名词侧重于表示某类事物的总的概念, 而不是具体的事物. 如果要具体指出该总称概念下的具体事物, 则要用其他不同的名词
表示总称的概念(不可数) 表示该总称概念下的具体事物( 常可数, 也有一些不可数) clothing 衣服 sweaters 运动衫, 针织衫 pants 裤子 dresses 套装 food 食物 vegetables 蔬菜 eggs 鸡蛋 hambergers 汉堡包 furniture 家具 chairs 椅子 tables 桌子 beds 床 cabints 五斗 wardrobes 衣柜 fruit 水果 apples 苹果 oranges 橙子 bananas 香蕉 cherries 樱桃 grapes 葡萄 luggage 行李 bags包 suitcases 手提箱 makeup 化妆品 lipsticks 口红 rouge 脂 eyeshadows 眼影 homework 家庭作业 compositions 作文 exercises 练习 readings 阅读作业 housework 家务 cleaning 打扫 dusting 除尘 cooking 做饭 jewelry 珠宝 rings 戒指 earrings 耳环 necklaces 项链 bracelets 手镯 money/cash 钱/现金 nickels 5 分硬币 dimes 1 角硬币 quarters 25 分硬币 dollars 元 总称概念 具体事物 machinery 机器 machines 机器 equipment 设备工具 tools 设备, 工具 poetry 诗歌 poems 诗歌 scenery 风景 scenes (具体的) 风景 ;scenic spots 景点 character 特点 characteristics(具体不同的) 特点 -
抽象的名词(nouns that are abstractions)一般是不可数的
advice 建议 * art 艺术 * beauty 美, 美貌 * crime 犯罪 * education 教育 * energy 能量 * experience 经验 * fun 趣味 * happiness 幸福 * health 健康 * help 帮助 * information 信息 * intelligence 智力, 智慧 * knowledge 知识 * life 生命 * love 爱 * luck 幸运 * music 音乐 * nature 自然 * noise 噪音 * nutrition 营养 * patience 耐心 * pollution 污染 * time 时间 * trouble 困境 * truth 真实 * unemployment失业 * work 工作
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表示研究学科(subjects of study), 一般作为不可数名词
biology 生物学 * chemistry 化学 * geometry 几何学 * grammar语法 * history 历史 * math 数学
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规律一: 对于物质名词或总称的名词, 若是表示不同的种类, 或者因为特定的意思, 或者是液体表示"几杯"或"几瓶"这样的数量, 则转化为可数名词
例句1)中, cake用作不可数名词, 表示"蛋糕"这类物质的总称. 在例句2)中, cake用作可数名词, 表示具体的"一块蛋糕"
- I like cake, not hamburger. 蛋糕
- My mother is making a cake in the kitchen. 一块蛋糕
在例句1)中, paper是表示供写字用的"纸", 不可数. 在例句2)中, paper的意思是"论文", 可数. 在例句3)中, paper相当于newspaper, 表示"报纸", 可数
- I need some paper to write a letter on. 纸
- I have a term paper to write on weekends. 论文
- I bought a paper. 报纸
"再比如glass表示"玻璃"时不可数, 但表示"玻璃杯"时则可数
- Glass does not rust or rot.
- This vase is made of glass.
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规律二: 对于抽象名词, 若是具体化了, 则转化为可数名词. 并且, 此时往往伴随着词义上或大或小的改变. 比如art(艺术)/an art(一项技术, 一门特定的艺术); beauty(美丽)/a beauty(一个美人); youth(青春)/a youth(一个年轻人)
art表示"艺术", 是一个抽象概念, 因此是不可数名词. art表示具体的技术, 可数
beauty表示"美丽", 是一个抽象的概念, 因此是不可数名词. a beauty表示具体的一个人, 是可数名词
youth表示"青春", 是一个抽象的概念, 因此是不可数名词. a youth是指一个"青年人", 因此是可数名词
magnificent collection是指"艺术收藏品"这个总称的, 抽象的概念, 而没有具体说明是什么收藏品, 所以是不可数名词. collection of nineteenth-century European paintings 是特指"19世纪欧洲油画收藏品"这样的具体事物, 所以是可数名词
There's plenty of room for everybody to sit down in this room.
- 第一个room是不可数名词, 表示"空间"; 第二个room是可数名词, 表示"房间".
I pronounce this couple to be husband and wife. You may kiss. 这里的husband和wife都是单数, 表示"夫妻"这样的概念, 而不是具体指某人, 是作为不可数名词, 所以不需要冠词修饰.
We are not boyfriend and girlfriend. 这里的boyfriend和girlfriend同样是转化为不可数名词了, 强调的是"男女朋友"这个概念.
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规律三: 从更广泛的意义上来说, 当一个名词表示抽象的, 总称的概念(abstract or generic concept)时, 一般作为不可数名词来用(比如上面讨论的husband and wife这样的特殊例子). 而当它表示具体的, 特定的事物(concrete or particular things)时, 则通常用作可数名词. 这就是为什么词典中对于某个单词的某一词义, 后面标注的既是可数, 也是不可数. 此时关键要看如何使用这个词义, 如果是当作具体的事物来看, 则是可数; 如果是当作一个概念来看, 则是不可数. 拿area(面积)来说, 如果是指某个地方的具体多大的"面积", 则是可数
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常用piece修饰以下抽象名词和物质名词
asdvice, bread, baggage, chalk, equipment, furniture, information, jewelry, luggage, music和news
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用bottle, cup, drop和glass修饰液态物质: beer, blood, coffee, milk, tea, water和wine
several drops of blood(几滴血)
a glass of milk(一杯牛奶)
two glasses of wine(两杯葡萄酒)
two cups of coffee(两杯咖啡)
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其他的量词
a loaf of bread(一长条面包)
a tube of toothpaste(一管牙膏)
a slice of meat(一片肉)
在英语中, 只用作单数的名词主要包括不可数名词与专有名词. 这两类名词一般没有复数的变化形式. 它们作主语时, 谓语要用单数第三人称形式
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"二合一"的复数名词
这些名词表示由相等的两个部分合在一起构成的工具, 仪器或服装
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工具和仪器
glasses(眼镜) * spectacles(眼镜) * binoculars(双筒望远镜, 双目显微镜) * scales(天平) * clippers(理发剪, 指甲刀) * forceps(钳子, 镊子〈尤指外科医生用的镊子〉) * pincers(铁钳, 钳子〈比如家用的老虎钳〉) * tongs(钳子, 夹子, 镊子〈比如火钳子〉) * tweezers(小钳〈比如女用的夹眉毛的小钳子〉) * scissors(剪刀) * shears(大剪刀)
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服饰
jeans(牛仔裤) * trousers(长裤) * shorts(短裤) * trunks(男士泳裤) * briefs(内裤) * pants(短裤) * slacks(休闲裤) * pajamas(睡衣)
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"单形复义"的名词
people cattle police poultry livestock
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"the+形容词"--表示一类人的复数名词
The rich are becoming richer. 富人变得更富.
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复数专有名词
在英文中, 有些专有名词只用作复数. 比如:
the Alps 阿尔卑斯山脉
The Himalayas are the roof of the world. 喜马拉雅山脉是世界屋脊.
The Great Lakes are a series of five lakes between the USA and Canada. 五大湖是位于美国和加拿大之间的五个湖.
The Niagara Falls are the falls on the Niagara River. 尼亚加拉瀑布是位于尼亚加拉河上的一个瀑布群.
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一般在词尾加-s
desk/desks, book/books, hand/hands, dog/dogs, bee/bees, face/faces, orange/oranges
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以-s, -x, -ch, -sh结尾的名词加-es
class/classes, box/boxes, match/matches, bush/bushes
特别注意: 以-ch结尾的名词, 若-ch发/k/音, 则加-s, 例如: stomach/stomachs.
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以"辅音字母+y"结尾的名词, 变-y为-i, 再加-es; 而以"元音字母+y"结尾的名词, 则加-s
country/countries, family/families, baby/babies, lady/ladies;
play/plays, boy/boys, guy/guys, donkey/donkeys, monkey/monkeys, key/keys
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有关以-o结尾的名词
这类名词的单数变复数稍微有些复杂, 因为有的是加-es, 有的是加-s, 而有的是加-es或-s均可. 下面就这三种情况分别列举:
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一般加-es的名词有:
tomato/tomatoes(西红柿) hero/heroes(英雄)
Negro/Negroes(<侮辱>黑人) veto/vetoes(否决)
这些一般是以"辅音字母+o"结尾的名词.
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一般加-s的名词有:
dynamo/dynamos(发电机) kilo/kilos(千克)
kimono/kimonos(和服) memo/memos(备忘录)
piano/pianos(钢琴) photo/photos(照片)
soprano/sopranos(女高音歌手) solo/solos(独奏曲)
tobacco/tobaccos(烟叶)
以上这些一般是以"辅音字母+o"结尾的外来词或缩写词. 另外还有以"元音字母+o"结尾的名词变复数也是加-s的:
bamboo/bamboos(竹子) cuckoo/cuckoos(布谷鸟, 杜鹃鸟)
radio/radios(收音机) studio/studios(工作室, 演播室)
zoo/zoos(动物园)
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少数名词后加-s或加-es均可:
memento/memento(e)s(纪念品) motto/motto(e)s(座右铭)
volcano/volcano(e)s(火山) manifesto/manifesto(e)s(宣言)
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有关以-f或-fe结尾的名词
这类名词与上述以-o结尾的名词在变复数方面有些类似, 即它一般也有三种情况:
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一般变f, fe为v, 再加-es的词有下面12个:
calf/calves(小牛) half/halves(一半)
knife/knives(小刀) leaf/leaves(树叶)
life/lives(生命) loaf/loaves(一条)
self/selves(自身) sheaf/sheaves(一捆, 一束)
shelf/shelves(架子) thief/thieves(贼)
wife/wives(妻子) wolf/wolves(狼)
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一般直接加-s的名词有:
belief/beliefs(信仰) chief/chiefs(首领)
cliff/cliffs(悬崖) proof/proofs(证据)
reef/reefs(暗礁) roof/roofs(屋顶)
safe/safes(保险箱)
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少数名词后加-s或变f, fe为v加-es均可:
dwarf/dwarfs/dwarves(矮人) handkerchief/handkerchiefs/handkerchieves(手帕)
hoof/hoofs/hooves(蹄) scarf/scarfs/scarves(围巾)
wharf/wharfs/wharves(码头)
另外要注意: beef(牛肉)/beefs(牢骚, 抱怨)/beeves(肉用牛, =beef cattle)
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以-a结尾的拉丁语名词, 词尾变为-ae或-as(少数词)
alga/algae(海藻) alumna/alumnae(女校友, 女毕业生)
antenna/antennae/antennas(天线) formula/formulae/formulas(公式)
larva/larvae/larvas(幼虫)
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以-ex或-ix结尾的拉丁语名词, 在词尾直接加-es, 或把-ex和-ix变为-ices
apex/apexes/apices(顶点, 最高点) appendix/appendixes/appendices(附录; 阑尾)
index/indexes/indices(索引)
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以-is结尾的希腊语名词, 变-is为-es
analysis/analyses(分析) basis/bases(基础)
crisis/crises(危机) diagnosis/diagnoses(诊断)
thesis/theses(论文)
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以-on或-um结尾的名词, 变-on或-um为-a, 有的可在词尾直接加-s
bacterium/bacteria(细菌) criterion/criteria/criterions(标准)
datum/data(数据) erratum/errata(错误, 错字勘误表)
medium/media/mediums(媒介, 介质) memorandum/memoranda/memorandums(备忘录)
phenomenon/phenomena(现象)
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变-oo-为-ee-
foot/feet(脚) tooth/teeth(牙齿)
goose/geese(鹅)
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变-ouse为-ice
"mouse/mice(老鼠) louse/lice(虱子)
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以-us结尾的拉丁语名词, 变-us为-i, 有的可在词尾直接加-es
alumnus/alumni(男校友) bacillus/bacilli(杆菌)
cactus/cacti/cactuses(仙人掌) fungus/fungi/funguses(真菌)
genius/genii/geniuses(天才) nucleus/nuclei/nucleuses(原子核)
stimulus/stimuli(刺激物)
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"man/woman+名词"构成的复合名词
由"man/woman+名词"构成的复合名词, 两个词均须变为复数
man teacher/men teachers(男老师) man doctor/men doctors(男医生)
man servant/men servants(男仆) woman pilot/women pilots(女飞行员)
woman journalist/women journalists(女记者)
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以-man/-woman/-child结尾的复合名词
以-man/-woman/-child结尾的复合名词变复数时, 将-man/-woman/-child变为复数
fireman/firemen(消防员) chairwoman/chairwomen(女主席)
horseman/horsemen(骑兵) grandchild/grandchildren(孙子, 孙女)
policeman/policemen(警察) Englishman/Englishmen(英国人)
Frenchman/Frenchmen(法国人)
但是German不是一个合成词, 所以其复数形式是在词尾直接加-s, 即Germans.
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"名词+介词或介词短语"构成的复合名词
"名词+介词或介词短语"构成的复合名词变复数时, 将主体名词(或者说中心名词)变为复数
comrade-in-arms/comrades-in-arms(战友)
注意: 不是comrades-in-arm*. 这里的arms要用复数形式. (详见1.3.8小节)
passer-by/passers-by(过路人) runner-up/runners-up(亚军)
looker-on/lookers-on(旁观者) mother-in-law/mothers-in-law(岳母, 婆婆)
editor-in-chief/editors-in-chief(总编辑) bride-to-be/brides-to-be(即将成为新娘的人, 准新娘)
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由动词短语演变成的复合名词
由动词短语演变成的复合名词, 一般没有主体名词, 变复数时在词尾加-s
forget-me-not/forget-me-nots(勿忘我) go-between/go-betweens(中间人)
grown-up/grown-ups(成年人) take-off/take-offs(起飞)
assistant director/assistant directors(助理导演) babysitter/babysitters(保姆)
breakdown/breakdowns(崩溃, 衰落) close-up/close-ups(特写镜头)
takeover/takeovers(接管) sit-in/sit-ins(静坐抗议)
stand-by/stand-bys(可以信任的人)
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"名词+形容词"构成的复合名词
"名词+形容词"构成的复合名词变复数时, 变名词为复数
notary public/notaries public(公证员) secretary general/secretaries general(秘书长)
Attorney General/Attorneys General(［美］司法部长, 大法官/［英］总检察长)
consul general/consuls general(总领事)
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动物名称
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永远用作零复数
sheep(绵羊)从来没有sheeps这个词形.
deer(鹿)从来没有deers这个词形.
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通常用作零复数
bison(北美野牛): a bison/two bison grouse(松鸡): a grouse/two grouse
quail(鹌鹑): a quail/two quail salmon(三文鱼, 大马哈鱼): a salmon/two salmon
cod(鳕鱼, 也叫作codfish. 在英国, 满大街的快餐Fish and Chips〈炸鱼和炸薯条〉就是常用这种鱼做的. 大家有机会到英国不妨尝尝就知道了, 非常油腻, 绝对是增肥食品): a cod/two cod
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零复数和规则复数均可
antelope(羚羊)复数可以是antelope, 或者是antelopes.
reindeer(驯鹿)复数可以是reindeer, 或者是reindeers. 圣诞节前夜, 帮圣诞老人拉雪橇的就是这种鹿.
fish(鱼)复数可以是fish, 或者是fishes.
flounder(比目鱼)复数可以是flounder, 或者是flounders.
herring(鲱鱼)复数可以是herring, 或者是herrings
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国籍名称
以-ese结尾的国籍名词常用零复数. 常见的这类名词有:
Chinese(中国人)这是每个中国的英语学习者都应该知道的. "一个中国人"是one Chinese, "13亿中国人"是1.3 billion Chinese. 这里的复数还是用Chinese, 而不是Chineses*.
其他的词还有:
Japanese(日本人): one Japanese/ten Japanese Lebanese(黎巴嫩人): one Lebanese/ten Lebanese
Portuguese(葡萄牙人): one Portuguese/ten Portuguese Vietnamese(越南人): one Vietnamese/ten Vietnamese
此外还有:
Swiss(瑞士人): one Swiss/ten Swiss British(英国人): one British/ten British
注意, 这类名词不同于不变形的不可数名词(如music), 不可数名词是永远用作单数的, 没有复数. 这类名词也不同于不变形的复数可数名词(如people), 复数可数名词是永远用作复数的, 没有单数. 而我们这里讨论的单复数同形的名词(如sheep), 是既可以用作单数, 也可以用作复数的, 只是没有形式的变化.
因此, 没有形式变化的名词有三类:
- 第一类是不可数名词, 如music, 它们没有词形的变化, 只能用作单数.
- 第二类是复数可数名词, 如people, 它们没有词形的变化, 只能用作复数.
- 第三类是单复数同形的名词, 如sheep, 它们没有词形的变化, 但既可以用作单数, 也可以用作复数.
请读者注意区分这三类名词, 大家不妨记住这里的三个名词: music, people和sheep, 通过这三个例子来帮助我们记住它们背后的用法规则.
arm(手臂) * arms(=weapons武器, 军事)
- arms control(军事管制) the arms race(军备竞赛)
- take up arms(准备战斗; 参军) troops bearing arms(荷枪实弹的军队)
- appeal to arms(诉诸武力)
custom(风俗) * customs(海关)
- a customs officer(一位海关官员) pay customs duty(付关税)
- go through customs at the airport(在机场过海关)
damage(损坏, 损失) * damages(赔偿金)
letter(信) * letters(文学)
minute(分钟) * minutes(会议记录)
spirit(精神) * spirits(烈酒)
premise(前提) * premises(房屋, 营业场所)
security(安全) * securities(证券)
line(行) * lines(台词)
名词所有格 's 主要用来表示有生命的名词的所属关系. 所以它通常用在姓名, 人称, 不定代词, 集体名词和高等动物等这样的名词后面
- 单数名词的所有格, 在词尾加's
- 复数名词
- 不以-s或-es结尾的特殊变化的复数名词, 在词尾加's
- 以-s结尾的复数名词, 在词尾加'构成所有格
- 复合名词的所有格, 在最后一个词的词尾加's构成
- 并列名词
- 对于由and连接的并列名词, 当表示"共有"的情况下, 只需在最后一个名词的词尾加's
- 若表示"各自所有", 则须在每个名词的词尾加's
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所属关系, 就是指某人所拥有的人或物
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主谓关系
How will Bhutto's death affect the world? 名词短语Bhutto's death相当于说Bhutto died, 表示"布托死了", 即相当于一个主谓关系.
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动宾关系
Bhutto's assassination rocks Pakistan. 这里的名词短语Bhutto's assassination相当于说assassinate Bhutto, 表示"刺杀布托", 即相当于一个动宾关系
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同位关系
For Washington, Bhutto's loss is incalculable.
这里的名词短语Bhutto's loss相当于the loss of Bhutto, 表示"失去了布托这一损失"或"损失了布托". 这里loss是中心词, 表示"损失", 而Bhutto's是用来详述具体损失了什么东西, 补充说明loss, 即相当于一个同位语. 显然, 这里的Bhutto's loss既不是上面所说的主谓关系来表示"布托失去了(什么东西)", 也不是动宾关系来表示"某人弄丢了布托
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表示时间或距离
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表示重量或价值等度量
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表示国家, 城市, 国际组织或地理名词等
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用于交通工具及其部件的所属关系
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避免名词重复
具体来说, 若名词所有格所修饰的名词已经出现过, 则第二次出现在所有格后面的名词可以省去, 以避免重复
This bike is mine, not Michael's(=Michael's bike). 这辆自行车是我的, 不是迈克尔的.
This is my room and that is my sister's(=my sister's room). 这是我的房间, 那是我姐姐的房间
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表示店铺或者教堂
at the baker's(=baker's shop) 在面包店
at the butcher's(=butcher's shop) 在肉铺
at the chemist's(=chemist's store) 在药店
at the florist's(=florist's shop) 在花店
at the dentist's(=dentist's clinic) 在牙医诊所
at the doctor's(=doctor's clinic) 在医生的诊所
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表示某人的住宅
具体来说, 在人名后的所有格省去名词时, 表示某人的住宅
go to my sister's(=my sister's home) 去我姐姐家
- 表示无生命物体的名词的所有关系
- 当有生命的名词后面接短语或从句修饰时, 也用of 属格
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主谓关系: 从右往左翻译
基本结构是N1+of+N2, 这里N1是由不及物动词变化过来的名词, 表示某个行为, 这一行为是由N2来发出的. 或者说, N2是N1行为的执行者
the arrival of my mother
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动宾关系: 从左往右翻译
其基本结构是N1+of+N2, 这里N1是由及物动词变化过来的名词, 与上述"主谓关系"相反, N2是N1行为的承受者, 而不是执行者
America's invasion of Iraq
William's conquest of England
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同位关系
其结构是N1+of+N2, 这里N2表示N1的具体内容, 二者互为同位说明
the city of Rome
the news of the team's victory
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地点介词
Place Preposition Notes at / on / in at 一维地点, on二维表面, in三维里面 above, over / under, below over/under垂直在上/下, above/below不垂直在上/下 in front of / behind near > by > beside > close to > next to between, among 两者between, 多者among around into / out of into 动态进入 onto / off onto 动态到表面 across, through, past across上面穿过, throgh里面穿过, past旁边穿过 along 沿着 from, to -
时间介词
Time Preposition Notes at 在... 时间点 for a precise time on 在... 时间上 for days and dates in 在... 时间内 for months, years, centuries and long periods before / after from, since by, until for 持续... 时间 during Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression Example at night The stars shine at night. at the weekend* I don't usually work at the weekend. at Christmas*/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas. at the same time We finished the test at the same time. at present He's not home at present. Try later. - * Note that in some varieties of English people say "on the weekend" and "on Christmas".
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in on in the morning on Tuesday morning in the mornings on Saturday mornings in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoon(s) in the evening(s) on Monday evening(s) When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
- I went to London last June. (not in last June)
- He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
- I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
- We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
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其他介词
Other Preposition Notes of about with / without for 为了... 标目的, 因为... 表原因, 对于... 表对象 by 通过... 方式, 被... 做, 相差... 多少 as 作为..., 像... 一样 like desipte
英文中的"限定词"这个概念是从修饰功能的角度来定义的. 具体来说, 英文中的限定词包括:
- 冠词: the, an和a
- 基数词和序数词: one/first, two/second, three/third等
- 指示限定词: this, that, these和those
- 物主限定词: my, your, his, her, our和their
- 数量限定词: a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, some, any, enough, several, most和all等
- 个体限定词: each, every, either, neither和both等
- 名词属格: Mary's, John's和his father's等.
但若从语音的角度来说, 英语中的冠词应该有四个: 除了两个不定冠词a和an外, 定冠词the也有两个.
- 一个是用在辅音前(before the consonant)的the, 读成［ðə］
- 一个是用在元音前(before the vowel)的the, 读成［ði］
- 不定冠词a用在以辅音音素(并非辅音字母)开头的名词前
- 不定冠词an用在以元音音素(并非元音字母)开头的名词前
- 冠词an还用在发音以元音开头的单个字母前面, 而a则用在发音以辅音开头的单个字母前面.
- an SOS sign 这里的字母S读成［es］, 是以元音［e］开头
- An L letter is in the word "letter". 这里的字母L读成［el］, 是以元音［e］开头
- A C letter is in the word "count". 这里的字母C读成［siː］, 是以辅音［s］开头
university, unique和unkind虽然都是以字母u开头的单词, 但是前两个u读成［ju］, 是辅音, 所以用不定冠词a; 而unkind中的u读成［ʌ］, 是元音, 所以用不定冠词an.
- a university, a unique person
- an unkind old lady
hour和honor两个词虽然是以辅音字母h开头, 但因为h不发音, 两个单词都是读成元音, 所以冠词用an
- an hour, an honor
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不可数名词不加冠词表示泛指
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复数名词不加冠词表示泛指
一般来说, "the+复数名词"不能用作泛指, 而只能表示特指. 不过, 有两种特殊的表示复数名词概念的结构:
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the + 国籍名词
该结构是指一个国籍的, 一个种族的人
The Chinese (中华民族) are a great people.
当然不是所有的国籍名词都可以这样用, 比如我们不能说the German are...*. 这样用的国籍名词只限
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以 -ese 结尾的国籍名词: Chinese, Japanese
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以 -sh 结尾的国籍名词: British, Cornish, Danish, English, Irish, Spanish, Turkish, Welsh
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以 -ch 结尾的国籍名词: Dutch, French
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the + 形容词
在英文中, "the+形容词"表示一类人, 是泛指, 相当于在形容词的后面省去了people, 所以被看作是复数名词, 作主语时, 谓语要用复数
The poor are causing the nation's leaders great concern.
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单数名词与定冠词the连用可以表示泛指
定冠词the与单数名词连用时, 可以表示泛指. 在语气上显得比较正式或文雅, 表示一个由典型的样品所代表的那个类别
- The tiger is becoming almost extinct.
- Tigers are becoming almost extinct.
对于"the+单数名词", 到底是表示泛指还是表示特指, 一定要根据上下文的语境来判断.
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单数名词与不定冠词a/an连用可以表示泛指
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单数名词与不定冠词a/an连用可以表示泛指
a/an+单数可数名词"可以表示泛指, 不定冠词a/an的泛指用法指的是某一类事物中任何一个具有代表性的成员, 所以这里的a/an相当于any
- A tiger is a dangerous animal.
- The tiger is a dangerous animal.
- Tigers is a dangerous animal.
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关于a(n)的泛指用法的深入讨论
在前面的讨论中, 我们强调过, 不定冠词a/an的泛指用法指的是某一类事物中任何一个具有代表性的成员, 所以我们可以用any来替换a/an
- A tiger is a dangerous animal.
- Any tiger is a dangerous animal.
正是因为a/an的泛指用法的上述特点, 所以它不能用来表示那些属于整个类别的特性. 比如我们不能说:
- A tiger is becoming almost extinct. *
因为这里的extinct只适于描写整个老虎种群的特性, 强调的是"种群"的灭绝, 而不适于表示"老虎"这类动物的一般特性. 比如我们可以说"任何一只老虎都具有危险伤人的特性":
- Any tiger is a dangerous animal.
我们却不能说"任何一只老虎都具有灭绝的特性":
- Any tiger is becoming almost extinct. *
不过, 对于这种"整个类别"的特性, 我们可以用复数名词或the来泛指, 如我们在前面举过例句, 此时我们可以说:
- The tiger is becoming almost extinct.
- Tigers are becoming almost extinct.
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情景/文化特指(situational/cultural reference)
根据说话者与听话者共有知识的范围大小, "情景/文化特指"这一类特指用法又可以进一步分类. 具体阐述如下:
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一般常识(general knowledge)/较大情景
这里的"一般常识"指的就是说话者与听话者共同具有的较大情景的知识. 由于这样的一般常识, 定冠词the所指的对象究竟是什么, 对双方来说都是不言而喻的
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具体知识(specific knowledge)/局部情景(local use)
说话者与听话者共有的知识只是局限在一个特定的较小的范围内, 比如对于同一个家庭或村庄的成员来说是独一无二的.
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即时情景用法(immediate situation)
在说话的时刻, 所指为双方唯一看到或听到的. 此时, 定冠词the的所指是从语言以外的实境(the extra-linguistic situation)中推知的
- The roses are very beautiful. 这句话是在花园里说的, 指的是眼前看到的这些玫瑰花
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上下文共指(textual co-reference)
上下文共指, 就是指听话者或读者可以根据上下文找到所指. 它可分为
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前指(anaphoric reference)
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直接前指(direct anaphora)
前面话语中已经提供的信息使后文中的某个名词短语特指某个事物, 即是前指. 直接前指是指前面提到的某个事物, 在后文中再次提到, 这样前后两个名词短语是一种共指关系(co-reference), 指代同一个事物. 由于第一次提到的事物通常是不定指的, 所以常用不定冠词a/an来限定. 可是一旦那个事物在话语中已经谈到过, 就可以把它看作"从上文中已得知的东西", 此后再提到它时就要用定冠词. 这就是传统语法书上所说的第一次提到的单数可数名词前面用不定冠词a或an, 这一名词再次出现时则要用定冠词the
I had a banana and an apple. I ate the banana and gave the apple to Clint.
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间接前指(indirect anaphora)
间接前指, 表示所指的对象间接地成为听话者知识的一部分. 这种知识不是通过上面讨论的那样的直接谈及而获得, 而是从已经谈到的事物中推断得到的. 此时, 在上文中往往会提到的一个与下文有紧密联系的概念或谈论的话题, 然后下文围绕这个话题展开讨论
John bought a bicycle, but when he rode it one of the wheels came off.
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后指(cataphoric reference)
后指, 也叫结构特指(structural reference), 往往出现在带有后置定语的名词短语中. 一般来说, 被某个后置定语所修饰的名词的前面要用定冠词the
The brick house on the corner is mine.
决定一个名词的前面是否要有the来限定, 并不完全是看该名词的后面是否有后置定语修饰, 主要还是看这个被后置定语修饰的名词是表达一个泛指概念还是特指概念. 具体可分成两种情况:
- 如果被后置定语修饰的名词是表达一个没有限制的, 广泛的, 不可预知的人或事物, 此时名词的前面依然不用the来限定;
- 如果被后置定语修饰的名词是表达某个被限定的, 特殊的, 听者或读者(listener/reader)很熟悉或与之有关的人或事物, 此时名词的前面需要用the来限定
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不定冠词的泛指与非泛指用法
a/an表示泛指的用法, 此用法一般仅限于处在主语位置的"a/an+单数名词". 如果"a/an+单数名词"是用在表语位置以及宾语位置, 则失去了泛指的功能, 而表现为其他的意义
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用在主语中, 具有泛指功能
A tiger is a dangerous animal. 老虎是一种非常危险的动物.
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用在补足语中, 表示分类, 具有描述功能
在英语中, 单数可数名词在作表语时, 通常需要一个冠词. 如果用不定冠词a/an, 则具有描述的功能, 而没有所指功能.
Bill is an engineer.
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用在宾语中, 具有所指功能
首先要申明的是, 不定冠词用于泛指(generic reference)也是它的所指功能(referring role)的一种. 为了分析清楚不定冠词a/an在宾语位置的所指功能, 我们有必要搞清楚冠词所指的确定性(specific or nonspecific)与说话者或听话者之间的关系. 下列表格给出了两者之间的四种关系
\ \ Speaker Speaker \ \ Specific Nonspecific Listener Specific 情形一:对说话者与听话者都是定指 (speaker specific, listener specific) How did I do on the test? 情形二 : 对说话者是不定指, 对听话者 (speaker nonspecific, listener- specific) Don't you have a tutor? Listener Nonspecific 情形三 : 对说话者是定指, 对听话者是不定 (speaker- specific, listener--nonspecific) Mary does have a small Toyota 情形四 : 对说话者与听话者都是不定指 (speaker nonspecific, listener nonspecific) I don't have a car.
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不定冠词a/an与不可数名词
在三类名词(即单数名词, 复数名词和不可数名词)当中, 不定冠词仅用于限定单数可数名词, 不可数名词的前面通常不用a/an. 但是, 出于特定的意义表达的需要, 就要用a/an来限定不可数名词:
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很多不可数名词与a/an连用, 表示"一种"或"一类".
如果说话者或作者想以某种方式来特指所说的事物, 比如通常以关系从句的方式加以限定, 或当说话者的意思是"一类"或"一种"的时候, 不可数名词前可以用a/an
A cheese that I like is Camembert. 我很喜欢的一种奶酪就是法国卡芒贝尔村产的软质奶酪.
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对于饮料类的不可数名词, 与a/an连用时, 表示"一杯".
I'd like a beer, please. 我要一杯啤酒.
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有些不可数名词, 当它们与a/an连用时, 会有特别的意思, 或者说意思会发生改变.
比如glass表示"玻璃"这种物质, 但a glass则表示"一个玻璃杯. 同样, iron表示"铁"这种物质, 但an iron表示"一个电熨斗"等等.
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不定冠词a/an与数词one
不定冠词在历史上起源于非重读形式的one, 在当代英语的许多语境中, 不定冠词的这种数词功能仍是非常主要的. 所以, 在下列并列结构中, one可作为a的强调形式的等同词而替代a
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强调数量"一"时用one
当我们想加强口吻或引人注意的时候, 我们用one强调"只有一个/不超过一个(one only/not more than one)"的意思, 而a/an则没有这个意思, 它显得比较平淡, 中性. 也就是说, one比a/an更强调数量
Customer: When will they be ready?
Assistant: They take a week.
Customer: One week, right, thanks very much.
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因为one强调数量, 所以常用于准确的对照数字
用one, 我们仅考虑到有关数字的方面, 或只想强调只是一个而不是两个或三个. 所以, 当我们想准确地对照数字时, 我们就要用one. 在下列对话中, A告诉B如何做蛋糕:
A hundred grams of flour to one egg, yeah, mixed up in the bowl.
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讲故事中用one
在讲故事或讲述某种经历时, 我们常用one来强调人或事物, 作为我们将要讲到的一个重要话题. 比如在下面这个例子中, 讲故事的人在谈论自己常去的一家餐馆:
There is one place we go to which is a Mexican restaurant, and they have a happy hour between 5: 30 and 7: 30.
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表示类指意义的a/an不能换成one
我们可以用a/an表示一类事物, 是不定冠词泛指意义的用法. 此时, 我们就不能用one来替换a/an, 否则意思会发生改变. 请比较:
A shotgun is no good.
One shotgun is no good.
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表示度量的a/an不能换成one
我们可以用a/an来表示度量, 以表示价格, 速度或比率等概念. 这时的a/an相当于per(每, 每一), 不能换成one. 请比较:
The rent is $100 a week.
❌ The rent is $100 one week.
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表示数量的固定搭配中的a不能换成one
各种数量词中也含有不定冠词a, 此时不能换成one, 比如: a few, a little, a great many以及a large number of等等. 因为这些是固定短语, 所以不能把其中的a替换成one, 比如不能说: one few或one little等
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不定冠词a/an与this
用与不用冠词, 对这类名词来说意义是不同的
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不用冠词时, 表示的是人们去这些地方做在这些地方应该做的事, 或者说做的事情与这些地方密切相关.
- 比如: in hospital(在医院)就是因为"生病", in prison(在监狱)就是因为"犯罪", go to church(去教堂)就是为了"礼拜祷告", go to temple(去庙里)就是为了"拜佛求签"等等. 此时这些名词只表示一种抽象的概念, 并非特指具体的, 实际的建筑物或地点, 而主要是强调在该处所的活动.
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使用冠词时, 则表示人们去这些地方不是要做与该处所密切相关的事, 而是由于其他原因
- 比如: in the hospital(在医院)不是因为"生病", 而是因为照顾病人或者是其他原因; in the prison(在监狱)不是因为"犯罪", 而是要维修设备
简言之, 对于表示处所或社会事业机构类的名词(如prison, church和college等), 使用冠词the, 是强调处所, 指的是实际的建筑物或地点; 不用冠词the, 是强调活动, 不是指实际的建筑物或地点, 而是指与它们相关的社会事业机构.
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家居生活类名词
at table "吃饭, 进餐"; at the table "在桌子边", 但不是在就餐, 而是干别的
go to bed 上床睡觉; go to the bed 到床边
go to bed 上床睡觉(不是要干别的); lie down on the bed 躺在床上(不是为了睡觉, 而是为了休息等等)
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处所, 建筑物或社会事业机构
in hospital 住院; in the hospital (因事)在医院里
go to prison 犯罪入狱; walk around the prison 绕着这个监狱走
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关于上学 (class, school, college和university等)
go to school 上学; go to the school (因事)去学校
in school 在校念书; in the school 在学校里
go to class 去上课;
in class 在上课; in the class 在这个班级
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关于sea的表达
- go to sea(as sailors) 当水手, 做海员; go to the sea 去海边
- by sea 乘船; by the sea 在海边
- in office 在职, 上台执政; in the office 在办公室
- behind time 落后时间, 晚点儿; behind the time(s) 落后时代
- in red "穿红色的衣服"; in the red相当于in debt, 表示"负债, 亏损
- by day 就表示"在白天"; 有定冠词the修饰day, 此时day是指具体的某一天, by the day就表示"根据这一天", 也表示"按日计算
- in secret是一个具有副词功能的介词短语, 表示"秘密地"干什么事. 有冠词the修饰secret, 此时的secret特指某一个"秘密事件", 所以, in the secret表示"参与或知道某个秘密, 知道内情"
- in front of 在...(外部)的前面; in the front of 在...(内部)的前部
- take place 发生; take the place 代替
- out of question 毫无疑问, 没有问题; out of the question 完全不可能
- of age就表示"够岁数了, 成年了", 相当于old enough. 有冠词an修饰age, 此时age就是表示某个具体的年龄, 所以of an age表示"同一个年龄"
- keep house 料理家务; keep the house 守在家里
- with child 怀孕; with a/the child 带着孩子/和这个小孩在一起
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形容词或副词的最高级, 序数词, 以及only用作形容词后接名词时, 它们的前面一般要用the.
the only/best way to cope with the problem 解决这个问题的唯一/最好的方法
This is the first time I've come to Beijing. 这是我第一次来北京.
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在乐器, 乐团, 合唱团及流行音乐团体前加the
the Beatles "甲壳虫"乐队
the Philadelphia Orchestra 费城管弦乐队
play/learn the guitar 弹/学吉他
learn the piano 学钢琴
注意: 运动项目前不加the. 比如: play chess, play football/basketball/table tennis等.
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定冠词the与姓氏连用
我们可以把定冠词the与姓氏连用, 然后要在姓氏的后面添加复数-s. 比如:
the Smiths
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表示强调时, 会用the
Airline official: How many bags are you checking in? (at the airport check-in desk)
Passenger: Just the one.
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关于职业, 身份或头衔
表示某人的职业, 一般是用不定冠词a/an. 比如:
I am an English teacher.
但是如果这个头衔是独一无二的, 或者说这个职位在一个单位里是唯一的, 此时常不用冠词. 不过, 也可以用the(既然是独一无二的身份, 所以不可能用a/an). 请比较:
- They appointed him Head Librarian.
- He's a librarian.
- Head Librarian是表示"图书馆馆长", 这个职位对于一个图书馆来说应该是唯一的, 所以此处没有用冠词a来修饰这个职位. librarian表示"图书管理员", 这个职位一般来说不是唯一的, 因为一个图书馆会有多个管理员, 所以此处用不定冠词a来修饰这个职位.
要注意这些表示独一无二的身份或职务的名称在句中所出现的位置, 它们通常是出现在补足语的位置(包括主语补足语, 宾语补足语以及系动词后的表语位置)和同位语位置, 此时尤其会省去the. 若是出现在其他位置, 如宾语位置或主语位置, 则需要加the
- President表示"总统", 显然是一个独一无二的头衔, 在该句中是出现在主语补足语的位置, 补充主语he, 用来说明he的身份, 所以省去the(尽管the可以被保留, 但还是常被省去). 在例句2)中, the President是出现在该句的宾语位置, 此时尽管它是独一无二的头衔, 但依然保留了the
- He was elected President in 1879.
- I want to see the President.
- Queen和President分别表示"女王"和"总统", 显然都是独一无二的头衔, 在该句中是出现在同位语的位置, Queen作Elizabeth的同位语, President作Kennedy的同位语, 所以省去the(尽管the可以被保留, 但还是常被省去). 在例句2)中, the Queen和the President分别是出现在该句的主语和宾语位置, 此时尽管也是独一无二的头衔, 但依然保留了the
- Queen Elizabeth had dinner with President Kennedy.
- The Queen had dinner with the President.
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关于球类, 棋类运动
表示球类, 棋类运动项目的名词前面不加冠词. 例如:
play football 踢足球
play chess 下棋
play tennis 打网球
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关于其他限定词与冠词
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特殊名词
- nature: 泛指自然界(动植物及无生命的物质的世界), 不加冠词. 比如"在大自然中"要说成in nature, 而不是in the nature*
- society: 泛指我们在其中生活的这个社会, 一般不加冠词. 比如"在社会中"要说成in society, 而不是in the society*
- space: 泛指星球之间的空间, 不加冠词. 比如"在太空中"要说成in space, 而不是in the space*
- man: 泛指整个人类时, 不加冠词
- history: 泛指人类的整个历史时, 不用冠词. 比如"在历史上"要说成in history, 而不是in the history*
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关于星期
"on+星期名称"这样的星期表达可以包含两个意思:
- 表示一个规律性的日期, 意思是"每逢周几"
- "I have English class on Monday/Mondays.
- 表示过去或将来的某个具体日期(a specific date), 此时是以说话时间为参照的
- 如果某个星期几不是以说话时间为参照, 而是以上下文中别的时间为参照, 此时就需要用定冠词the来修饰星期, 说成"on the+星期名称"
- The last time I saw her was three weeks ago. She was in England for one week. She phoned me on the Wednesday and we met on the Friday.
- 不定指的星期表达, 此时用不定冠词a来修饰星期, 说成"on a+星期名称"
- We met on a wet Monday in June. 我们是在6月份一个下着雨的星期一见面的
- 表示一个规律性的日期, 意思是"每逢周几"
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关于四季
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指一般的四季而不是具体指某年的某一段时间时, 通常不加冠词
in spring(在春天) in summer(在夏天)
in autumn(在秋天) in winter(在冬天)
Winter is coming. 冬天就要来了.
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如果指特定的某一年的某个季节时, 就要加冠词
The spring of last year was cold. 去年春天很冷
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关于昼夜的各段时间
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表示昼夜的各段时间的名词主要有:
dawn/daybreak(黎明/破晓) sunrise(日出)
sunset(日落) noon(正午)
dusk/twilight(黄昏) night(夜晚)
midnight(午夜)
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以上这些名词尤其是当它们出现在at, by, after和before之后时, 往往不加冠词. 比如(以at为例):
at dawn(在黎明时) at daybreak(在破晓时)
at sunrise(在日出时) at sunset(在日落时)
at noon(在正午时) at dusk/twilight(在黄昏时)
at night(在夜晚) at midnight(在午夜)
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如果是用在其他介词之后, 或者是在其他场合, 这些名词前则往往要加冠词. 比如:
watch the dawn(看黎明到来) The sunrise was splendid.(日出很壮观)
We admired the sunset.(我们欣赏了日落) see nothing in the dusk(在黄昏时什么也没看见)
wake up in the night(在夜里醒来) all through the night(整整一夜)
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若是表示特定的某一天的某个时间段, 往往用不定冠词, 并且用介词on, 此时这些名词的前面通常都会有形容词修饰
on a frosty December night
on a rainy morning 在一个下雨的早晨
on a sunny winter afternoon 在一个阳光明媚的冬日午后
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关于进餐
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指一般日常惯例的用餐时, 通常不加冠词. 比如:
have rice for dinner 晚餐吃米饭
for breakfast/lunch(早餐/午餐吃......)
stay for breakfast(留下来吃早餐)
before lunch(午餐前) after dinner(晚餐后)
I was invited to dinner. 我受邀赴晚宴.
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如果指需要特别提出的某一次用餐, 则常用the来强调
Where are we having dinner tonight?
The dinner after his retirement party was quite lavish.
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交通工具
接在by之后的交通工具名词, 其前面不加冠词. 但是这些名词在其他场合要加冠词
by bicycle; take the bicycle
by bus; be on the bus
by car; be in the car
by boat; take the boat
by train; take the train
by plane; be on the plane
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关于通讯工具的名词
接在by之后的通讯工具名词, 其前面不加冠词. 但是这些名词在其他场合要加冠词
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平行结构
如果两个名词一起放在同一平行结构里, 即使是单数可数名词, 也通常不加冠词. 比如:
face to face 面对面; 当面
back to back 背对背
arm in arm 手挽着手
hand in hand 手牵手
eye to eye/eyeball to eyeball 面对面地, 针锋相对地
toe to toe 脚尖挨脚尖, 摩肩接踵
shoulder to shoulder/side by side 肩并肩地
inch by inch 逐渐地, 一步一步地
day after day (=day by day) 日复一日
from person to person 挨个地
from door to door 挨家挨户地
from top to toe 从头到脚, 完完全全
from father to son 从父到子
在上面带有重复名词的短语, 如face to face, toe to toe和eyeball to eyeball等, 这样的短语往往具有副词的功能, 在句中用作状语, 修饰动词. 比如:
They talked face to face. 他们面对面地谈话.
They talked man to man. 他们坦率地交谈.
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与名词的搭配关系
从与名词的搭配来看, a few和few的后面只能接复数名词, 而a little和little的后面只能接不可数名词
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肯定/否定之别
从肯定及否定的角度来看, a few和a little的意思是肯定的, 相当于some, 表示"有一些"的意思. 而few和little的意思是否定的, 表示"很少, 几乎没有
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与only或very的搭配关系
我们只能说: only a little或only a few, 而不能说: only few或only little. 但为了强调否定意义, 我们可说: very few或very little
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与名词的搭配关系
从与名词的搭配来看, some和any均可以与不可数名词及可数名词复数连用, 表示"一些". some一般用在肯定句中, 而any一般用在否定句中
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特殊用法一: any与单数名词搭配
当any的后面接单数名词时, 它的意思是"无论哪一个, 任何一个", 此时可用于任何类型的句子
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特殊用法二: some与单数名词搭配
some可与单数可数名词连用, 这时的some表示不确定的"某一个"的意思
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特殊用法三: some与数词连用
在限定复数名词时, some的后面还可以先接一个数词, 然后再接名词, 此时some表示"大约"的意思. 这一用法常常暗指这是一个给人以深刻印象的很大的数字
Some 1,500 passengers and crew died aboard the Titanic when it sank on April 14,1912 after hitting an iceberg.
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与名词的搭配关系
从与名词的搭配来看, each和every的后面都只能接单数可数名词, 这就是要称它们为"个体"限定词的原因. 它们不能修饰不可数名词和复数名词. 此时若作主语, 句子的谓语动词显然要用单数
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差异
这两个限定词都是只能与单数名词连用, 这是二者的共同点. 但二者的差异重点在于其用法上. 具体阐述如下.
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二者在词性上的差别
each不仅可用作限定词, 也可用作代词; 而every只能用作限定词. 因此, each用作代词可以单独使用, 而every只能与名词连用, 不能单独使用
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二者在意思上有两点区别
- each可以用来指两个或两个以上的事物, 而every却总是指三个或三个以上的事物, 不能指两个
- 尽管each和every都可作"每一个"讲, 但两者的意思并不完全一样. every强调整体, 相当于all的意思; 而each则表示个别的概念. 当我们用each时, 我们强调的是一个一个不同的人或事物
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与数词的搭配关系
一般来说, each不与数词连用, 而every可与数词连用, 然后再加复数名词
every four/fourth years 每隔三年/每四年
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与名词的搭配关系
another不能修饰不可数名词及复数名词, 只能与单数可数名词连用, 表示不确定的"另一个", "再一个"
other可与单数名词, 复数名词以及不可数名词连用, 表示不确定的"另外的", "其余的"人或物
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与数词的搭配关系
- 二者在词序上的差别是: 数词要置于another的后面, 但要放在other的前面. 具体来说就是采用下面的结构
- another + 数词 + 复数名词 == 数词 + more + 复数名词
- 数词 + other + 复数名词
- 语义上来看, 两种结构所表达的意思完全不同
- "another + 数词 + 名词复数" 这一结构的基本意思是"在原有基础上的一个延续
- "数词+other+复数名词"只是单纯地表示"其他的, 另外的
- 综上所述, "another+数词+名词复数"结构强调的是数量概念. 比如another three days表示"接下来还有三天", 是一个量的累积. 而"数词+other+复数名词"结构强调的是类别概念
- 二者在词序上的差别是: 数词要置于another的后面, 但要放在other的前面. 具体来说就是采用下面的结构
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other本身的其他用法
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other之前可以有其他限定词修饰
常见的置于other前面的限定词包括: some, any, every, enough, one/two/three..., no, many和his/my/their等
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other/others
词尾不带-s的other只能作限定词来用, 其后面必须接名词, 而不能单独使用. 比如不能说: other are.... 与此相反, others只能用作代词, 后面不能再接名词, 而只能单独使用
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other/the other
"other+名词"表示不确定的"其他的, 另外的". 若有了定冠词the限定, "the other+名词"则表示特定范围内的"剩下其余的
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与名词的搭配关系
从与名词的搭配来看, 二者都是与单数可数名词连用, 谓语动词用单数
Either day is OK.(不说: ... are OK.) 两天中的哪一天都行.
Neither day is OK.(不说: ... are OK.) 两天中的哪一天都不行
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做代词
用作代词时, 二者不直接接名词, 而是单独使用或接of短语
- Come over on Saturday or Sunday. Either is OK. 你周六或周日过来, 哪天都行.
- You can't choose Choices A and B. Neither is right. 选项A和B你都不能选, 两个都不对.
either/neither of + 限定词(如冠词, 物主代词或指示形容词) + 名词复数 + 单数谓语动词
- 名词前面必须有限定词. 比如我们不说: either of answers, neither of children
- 名词必须用复数. 比如我们不说: either of the answer, neither of my child
- 谓语动词通常用单数
- Either of the answers is right. 两个答案都对.
- Neither of my children has done that. 我的两个孩子都没做那件事.
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词义差别
either有两个意思
- 首先, either的基本意思是"两个当中的任何一个", "这个或那个(one or the other)"
- Come over on Saturday or Sunday. Either day is OK. 周六或周日过来, 这两天中的哪一天都行
- 另外, either有时候也指"两个中的每一个(each of two)", 特别是在与end和side连用时
- There are a lot of trees on either side of the river. 河的两岸都种满了树.
neither只有一个意思, 即"两者都不(not one and not the other)
- 首先, either的基本意思是"两个当中的任何一个", "这个或那个(one or the other)"
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either...not相当于neither
- 都: both vs. all
在英文中, both只表示"两者都", 而all表示"三个或三个以上都"
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都不: neither vs. none
在英文中, neither只表示"两者都不", 而none表示"三者或三者以上都不"
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另外一个: the other vs. another
在英文中, the other是表示"确定的另外一个", 常用来表示"两个中的另外一个". 因为总共就只有两个, 所以若确定其中一个, 则另外一个也就随之确定了. 因此, 常常构成这样的搭配: one...the other.
另一方面, another是表示"不确定的另外一个", 必然是指"三个或三个以上的另一个". 因为总共有三个或三个以上, 所以即使确定了其中一个, 剩下的依然是不确定的
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每一个: each vs. every
each表示两个或两个以上的"每一个", 而every表示从三个算起的"每一个
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只与单数可数名词搭配的限定词
这样的限定词有: a, an, each, every, either, neither, another和one等等.
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只与复数可数名词搭配的限定词
这样的限定词有: both, few, a few, fewer, a number of, many, several, these, those, two及two以上的基数词等等.
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只与不可数名词搭配的限定词
这样的限定词有: little, a little, less, much, a bit of和a great amount/deal of等等.
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既可以与不可数名词也可以与复数可数名词搭配的限定词
这样的限定词有: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, more, most和all等等.
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与单数可数名词, 复数可数名词和不可数名词均可搭配的限定词
这样的限定词有: any, some, no, the, 物主限定词(如your和my等), 名词属格(如Tom's和my mother's)等等.
数量或个体词 + of + 特指限定词 + 复数名词或不可数名词
这里的"特指限定词"主要有下列四类:
- 指示限定词, 如this, that, these和those;
- 物主限定词, 如my, your, his, her, its, their和our;
- 名词所有格, 如Mike's, Mary's和the teacher's等;
- 定冠词the.
具体用法如下:
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all/most/some/any of + 特指限定词 + 复数可数或不可数名词
Most of my/these/the/John's books are interesting.
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many/a few/few/several/both/two/three of + 特指限定词 + 复数可数名词
Many of these students are good at English
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much/a little/little of + 特指限定词 + 不可数名词
Much of the water is wasted
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特别关注: all和both
All/Both students are smart.
All/Both of my students are smart.
All/Both my students are smart.(all的独特用法)
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特别关注: 不定代词与of短语
不定代词none, someone, anyone以及everyone, 都是两个词合起来写成的一个词. 它们还分别有分开写的形式: no one, some one, any one以及every one
- 合起来写的someone, anyone和everyone的后面不能接of短语. 分开写的no one不能接of短语.
- 分开写的some one, any one和every one的后面必须接of短语. 合起来写的none要接of短语
根据限定词在名词前的位置关系, 我们把限定词分为三类:
- 前位限定词(pre-determiner)
- 中位限定词(central determiner)
- 后位限定词(post-determiner)
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限定词用来限定名词所指的范围, 对名词起泛指或特指, 定量或不定量等限定修饰作用; 而形容词则是用来表示名词的性质, 特征的
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限定词一般不用作表语(少数表示数量的限定词few, many和much除外), 而绝大多数形容词都可用作表语.
除了few, little, many和much外, 限定词没有比较级和最高级形式, 而大多数形容词有比较级和最高级形式.
限定词总是位于名词之前, 而形容词作定语时有的可置于被修饰词之后
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单个形容词
限定词 + 形容词 + 名词
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多个形容词
观点形容词(opinion adjective) + 描绘形容词(descriptive adjective)
限定词 (my, the, three, this) -> 观点形容词 (beautiful, famous) -> 尺寸大小 (large, small, long) -> 形状 (round, square) -> 新旧, 年龄 (new, old, ancient) -> 颜色 (white, yellow) -> 国籍, 出处或产地 (Chinese) -> 质地, 材料 (wood) -> 中心名词
我们知道, 单个形容词作定语, 一般是置于先行词前面. 但形容词短语作定语, 一般只能置于被修饰名词的后面, 即充当后置定语. 请比较:
A typical mistake
A mistake typical of beginners of English
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形容词 + 补足语 构成形容词短语
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形容词 + 介词短语
A jacket similar to yours.
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形容词 + 不定式短语
Students brave enough to attempt the course deserve to succeed.
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形容词 + 动名词
A waiter busy serving the guests.
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多个形容词并列构成的形容词短语
两个或两个以上的形容词 (短语) 并列作定语, 一般是放在被修饰词的后面, 而且还用逗号将形容词与句子的其他部分隔开. 这时, 作定语的形容词通常是对所修饰词作补充性的说明或解释
He bought a set of furniture, simple and beautiful.
All countries, large or small, should be equal.
- 一般直接在词尾加-er和-est, 分别构成比较级和最高级
- 以-e结尾的词, 直接在词尾加-r和-st, 分别构成比较级和最高级
- 以-y结尾的词应先变y为i, 再加-er和-est分别构成比较级和最高级
- 以一个元音+辅音结尾的词, 要先双写词尾的辅音字母, 然后再加-er和-est分别构成比较级和最高级
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以-y结尾的双音节形容词, 要先变y为i, 再加-er和-est分别构成比较级和最高级
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其他绝大多数双音节词是分别在词前加more和most构成比较级和最高级
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少数几个双音节词则同时可以用上述两种基本方法来构成比较级和最高级
common, cruel, friendly, funny, handsome, mature, noisy, pleasant, polite, quiet, stupid和tired; 以-ow结尾的词有: hollow, narrow和shallow; 以-er结尾的词有: clever和tender; 以-le结尾的词有: feeble, gentle和noble
- 三个或更多音节的词都是分别在其前面加more和most来构成比较级和最高级
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the+最高级+in+地方
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the+序数词+最高级+in+地方
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the+形容词/副词的最高级+of+所属范围
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最高级前面的定冠词the加与不加
- 形容词的最高级修饰名词用在名词之前, 一般要加the
- most有时用在形容词前, 并非表示最高级, 而是表示非常, 很之意, 相当于very, very much. 此时, most的前面一般不用定冠词the
用-ing形容词修饰人, 是说明这个人能够引起的某种情绪
a boring man 一个让人感到乏味的男子
a bored man 一个对生活感觉乏味的男子
But my diary is good on nature: the first time I saw a fox in the garden in 1986, the first time I saw a fox in the street, the first time I saw fox cubs in the garden, all in excited detail.
妙语点睛 表面上看, excited用在了detail的前面, 因而它修饰了detail. 但在真正的意义上, excited是描写作者在写作当时的心境 (The writer's describing her emotional state while writing.), 所以excited detail相当于汉语说兴奋地描述了细节, 而不是兴奋的细节. 这是一种英语表达的经济原则 (This is economy in writing.)
两种基本且重要的分类:
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关于句子的谓语构造的基本分类, 涉及助动词, 情态动词和实义动词, 这关系到英语句子的否定和提问等结构变化 (本章讨论)
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关于实义动词的分类, 这关系到英语句子的五种结构类型 (将在第六章讨论), 关系到英语造句的大问题
根据动词的词义和在谓语中的作用, 我们可以把动词分为实义动词 (notional verb), 助动词 (auxiliary verb) 和情态助动词 (modal verb)
实义动词的特点:
- 从词义的角度来看, 实义动词具备完整的词汇意义
- 从在谓语中的作用这一角度来看, 实义动词能单独充当句子的谓语
英语中除了助动词和情态动词以外, 其他的动词均为实义动词
| x | 例句 | 词义 | 词性及作用 |
|---|---|---|---|
| be | I am a student. | "是" | 系动词, 用作谓语 |
| be | I am studying grammar. | 无词义 | 助动词, 帮助构成进行时态 |
| have | I have two brothers. | "有" | 实义动词 |
| have | I have studied English for 3 years. | 无词义 | 助动词, 帮助构成完成时态 |
| do | I often do my homework at home. | "做" | 实义动词, 用作谓语 |
| do | I do not like English. | 无词义 | 助动词, 帮助构成否定句 |
助动词的特点:
- 从词义的角度来看, 助动词不具备词汇意义
- 从在谓语中的作用这一角度来看, 助动词不能单独充当句子的谓语, 它必须和实义动词连用, 以帮助构成各种时态, 语态, 语气, 否定和疑问等
英语的助动词有三个: be, do, have, 它们分别具有各种变化形式. 如下:
- be: am, is, are, was, were, been, being
- do: does, did
- have: has, had, having
情态动词的特点:
从词义的角度来看, 情态动词有别于助动词. 情态动词有其自身的词汇意义, 如用来表示可能, 建议, 愿望, 必要, 允许, 能力, 怀疑等等, 以表示说话者对某种行为或状态的看法或态度
从在谓语中的作用这一角度来看, 与助动词一样, 情态动词在句中不能单独作句子的谓语, 而必须和实义动词一起构成复合谓语
| 现在式(表理论) | 过去式(表理论) | 情态动词短语(表实际) |
|---|---|---|
| can | could | be able to |
| may | might | be allowed to |
| must | have (got) to | |
| shall | should | be supposed to / ought to |
| will | would | be going to |
此外, need和dare既可以用作情态动词, 也可以用作实义动词
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谓语中含有be动词或情态动词的否定
直接在be动词或情态动词的后面加否定词not即构成否定句
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谓语动词是实义动词的否定
do/does/did + not + 动词原形
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谓语动词中含有be动词或情态动词的提问
只需将be动词或情态动词移到句首
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谓语动词是实义动词的提问
如果句子是一般现在时, 要借助助动词do或does, 将do或does放在句首. 如果是一般过去时, 则是将did放在句首, 谓语动词变回动词原形
特殊疑问词 + 一般疑问句 + ?
- 不与名词连用的疑问词
- 要与名词连用的疑问词
- how的用法详解
| 现在式(表理论) | 过去式(表理论) | 情态动词短语(表实际) |
|---|---|---|
| can | could | be able to |
| may | might | be allowed to |
| must | have (got) to | |
| shall | should | be supposed to / ought to |
| will | would | be going to |
情态动词就有三大类用法: 推测用法, 基本用法, 虚拟用法
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推测 possibility
过去 现在 将来 情态动词 + 完成式 情态动词 + 进行式 情态动词 + 一般式 must > may/might > could must > may/might > could will > should > may/might > could -
能力 ability
X 过去 现在 将来 理论 could can can / will be able to do 实际 were able to could could -
许可 permission
X 过去 现在 将来 理论 could can can + 将来时间状语 实际 were allowed to be allowed to will be allowed to
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情态动词 + 一般式
情态动词可以是推测意义, 也可以有基本意义
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情态动词 + 完成式/进行式/完成进行式
在情态动词接完成式, 进行式或完成进行式的时候, 情态动词都是具有推测意义, 而没有各自的基本意义
四个过去形式的情态动词would, could, might和should接完成式(have done)可以表示对过去的虚拟, 此时情态动词不是推测的意义, 而是虚拟含义
如果把虚拟意义看作是推测意义的一种特例 - 推测某种可能性不存在, 此时也就与情态动词的推测用法有联系了, 这样就依然证明了上面的规律: 在情态动词接完成式, 进行式或完成进行式的时候, 情态动词都具有推测意义, 而没有各自的基本意义
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情态动词 + 情态动词短语
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must 表示推测及必须
第一, 表示"推测"时, must不能表示将来, 只能表示对现在的推测和对过去的推测. 若是表示对现在的推测, 其谓语形式是"must一般式", 即must do; 或"must进行式", 即must be doing. 若是表示对过去的推测, 其谓语形式是"must完成式", 即must have done
第二, 表示"必须"时, must不能谈过去的事件, 只能谈现在和将来的事情. 其谓语形式都是"must一般式", 即must do. 不能用"must进行式或完成式", 即must be doing或must have done中的must一定不会译成"必须", 而只能是表示推测. must表示"必须"的意义时是没有过去时态的, 要表示"过去必须", 则要借用had to来表达
第三, 在表示"必须"时, must后面的谓语动词一般是表示动作(action)的, 具体来说, 就是现在的动作或将来的动作(present and future actions), 不会是表示状态. 在表示"推测"时, must后面的谓语动词可以是动作, 也可以是状态
与must相关的情态动词短语是have (got) to. 它同must一样, 既可以表示"推测", 也可以表示"必须". 比如下面两句中的have to都表示"推测"
用have to表示"必须"时, 与must主要有两点区别:
- 在时态的表达上, must只能谈现在或将来, 不能谈过去. must没有时态的变化, 而have to有各种时态的变化, 比如过去式had to, 将来式will have to, 现在完成式have had to, 过去完成式had had to等
- 如果是来自外界的不可控的行为(uncontrollable external behavior), 此时要用have to. 比如, "要打喷嚏"是我们无法控制的, 所以要说: Excuse me, but I have to sneeze. 对不起, 我要打喷嚏
除了以上两点, 还需要注意的是, must("必须")的否定形式mustn’t不是表示"不必", 而是"千万别做某事"的意思, 表示"不必"要说don’t have to. 因此, 可以说must("必须")的否定是don’t have to("不必"). 另外, must的推测用法"一定是"的否定不是mustn’t, 而是can’t("不可能是")
- must ("必须") => don't have to
- must ("一定是") => can't
- must't ("千万别")
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在否定推测中没有must, 因为must表示推测时一般只用在肯定句中, 而否定的mustn’t常用于表示"命令别人不要做什么", 译为"千万别"
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与must相反, can表示推测时不能用在肯定句中, 只用在否定句和疑问句中. 因此, must不能在否定句表示推测这一空白正好由can’t来填补, 也就是说表示推测的must, 否定时要改为can’t, 而不是mustn’t. 比如:
You must be joking. You can’t be serious. 你准是在开玩笑, 你不可能当真吧
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在肯定推测时, could的肯定程度很低; 但在否定推测时, couldn’t则表示十分确信, 译为"不可能"
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could和might虽然是过去式, 但在这里并不是表示对现在或是将来的推测
表示对现在的推测, 常用的情态动词是must, may, might和could, 在否定句中还有can’t (来替换must). 不过will和should也可以用来表示对现在的推测, 其肯定程度等同于must
对将来的推测, 更确切地说应该是预测(prediction), 谓语形式也是用情态动词一般式, 这与上一节讨论的对现在的推测的谓语形式一样. 实际上, 除了must, 情态动词如will, should, may, might和could都可以表示对将来的预测
will > should > may > might/could
表示对过去的推测, 英语的谓语形式要用情态动词完成式, 常用的情态动词有must, may, might和could, 所以要说成 must have been, may have been, might have been和could have been等形式; 若是在否定句中, 则需要将must换成can或could, 说成can’t have done或couldn’t have done
must > may > might/could
英语中四个过去形式的情态动词would, could, might和should既可以表示推测, 也可以表示虚拟. 具体来说,
- would/could/might/should do可以表示对现在或将来的推测, 也可以表示对现在或将来的虚拟
- would/could/might/should have done可以表示对过去的推测, 也可以表示对过去的虚拟
can主要有三个意义, 即"能力(ability)""可能(possibility)"和"许可(permission)", 其实都是源自"潜能(potential)"这一核心意思
就"能力"的含义而言, can的核心意思是表示"潜在的"能力 (The core concept of CAN is about"potential".) 用来说明因为具备某些特点或条件, 某人能够完成某件事或某事是可能存在的, 而并不强调何时或怎样实施这种潜在的行为. 所以, can既可以表示"能力 (ability) ", 也可以表示"可能 (possibility) "
我们还可以把"能力"区分为"先天的能力"或者说"天赋的能力", 及"后天获得的能力"
can既然是强调"潜在的可能", 所以它是强调某事在理论上发生的可能性是存在的, 而与说话时的实际情况无关. 比如说"这个孩子可能会很淘气", 就是从一般的理论意义上来说的, 而与这个孩子当时的行为表现毫无关系. 比如即使这个孩子当时正在甜美地熟睡着, 我们仍然可以指着他说"这个孩子有时可能会很淘气". 同样, 当我们说"这里的交通有时可能会很拥堵"时, 我们并不需要考虑说话当时的交通状况, 即使是在夜里没有车辆通行的情况下, 我们依然可以说"这里的交通有时可能会很拥堵". 因此, can具有"偶然的可能性"或"理论上的可能性"的含义, 而不是"实际上的可能性". 一般可以把这时的can翻译成"有时会", "可能会"
由此可见, can所表示的"可能"与前文讲过的could, may和might所表示的"推测"是完全不同的. 尽管在汉语中都可译成"可能", 但两者的内涵是有巨大差别的. 前面讨论的could, may和might所表示的"推测", 是强调"实际上的可能". 说话人要紧密结合当时的实际情况来判断某事发生的"确定程度 (degrees of certainty) "的大小, 从而选择might, could或may, 甚至是must来表达不同的确定程度. 此时, 我们往往是表示根据现有事件的某种结果来推断其发生的原因. 比如我们说"这个孩子脸色煞白", 对说话时的这一现状, 我们推断"他可能是病了". 同样, 对于"约翰现在还没有到"这一现有的结果, 我们可以推测出各种原因, 其中一个原因是"他可能是在路上堵车了"
从以上的讨论发现, 区分"理论上的可能"与"实际上的可能"的一个关键点, 是看所说的可能情况与说话时的现状是否有联系. 与说话时的现状有联系的, 则是"实际上的可能". 这时往往是谈论一个具体的事件, 所以也可称之为"具体的可能", 这尤其用于针对一个现状或后果来推断其产生的原因. 与说话当时的现状无关的, 则是"理论上的可能"
由于can具有"潜能"这一特性, 决定了它只能用来表示"理论上的可能", 而不能表示"实际上的可能", 即不能具体地谈一个事件. 所以, 在前面的8.2, 8.3和8.4等几节关于"推测"的讨论中, 都没有提到用can, 而说的是could, might和may. 所以, 上述中文句子应分别译成:
- The boy can be very naughty. (理论上, 潜在的可能)
- The boy looks pale. He could be sick. (实际上, 现实的可能)
- There are times when the traffic here can be very heavy. (理论上, 潜在的可能)
- John isn’t here now. He could be caught in the traffic jam. (实际上, 现实的可能
思维总结
- 与说话当时现状有联系的, 则是"实际上的可能"; 与说话当时现状无关的, 则是"理论上的可能"
- can因为是表示"潜能", 所以主要用来谈论"理论上的可能". 在肯定句中, 不能谈"实际上的可能". 在否定句中, can’t主要是谈"实际上的可能", 相当于must的否定形式. 在疑问句中, can既可以表示"理论上的可能", 也可以表示"具体的可能"
- could, might和may可以用来谈论"具体的可能"和"理论上的可能"
将来能够"或者是"今天能够"去迪士尼乐园, 强调的都是一种"潜在的可能性", 而不一定真正去实施. 也就是说, 尽管理论上我可以去迪士尼乐园, 但实际上我可能去, 也可能不去. 但如果我们谈一个具体的过去的事件, 如"昨天能够去迪士尼乐园", 则表达一个确定的事实, 没有"潜在的可能"的意思了, 这就违背了can表示"潜能"这一核心意思. 故不能说出"Yesterday I could go to Disneyland. *"这样的句子
could表示"过去的一般能力", was able to表示"过去的具体能力". 具体地说, 所谓"过去的一般能力"就是指在过去有能力想做某件事就随时可以去做, 但并不说明真正实施了这个行为, 即强调的是一种"潜能", 而不是某一次具体的过去行为 (When used to denote past ability, COULD does not refer to a single instance of ability on a particular occasion, but rather, it signifies an ability in a very general sense.) . 例如:
I could run after a bus and catch it twenty years ago, but I can’t do that now.
妙语点睛 这里只是说明我过去有"追上汽车"的能力, 而并没有强调我真的有过"追车"这个行为, 即表示的是一种"潜能"或"一般能力", 所以用could来表示"潜在的可能". 这里不能用can, 因为can表示的是现在或将来
在否定句中, couldn’t和wasn’t/weren’t able to没有区别, 即couldn’t可以谈过去具体的能力, 表示在过去某一特定场合"未能"完成某事"
情态动词表示"许可", 以下三点是非常重要的:
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可以用的情态动词有 may, might, can和could, 但多用can或be allowed to do表示许可
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表示"许可"一般用陈述句 (若用疑问句则表示"请求")
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肯定的陈述表示允许某人做某事; 否定的陈述则表示不允许某人做某事
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肯定句 - 给予许可
can表示"许可", 可以和表示将来的时间状语连用. 尽管前面讲过, can可以表示将来的能力, 不过此时一般不与表示将来的时间状语连用. 若有表示将来的时间状语, 要说will be able to do
You can pass your driving test next time you take it.
妙语点睛 因为该句中的can是表示"能力", 所以不宜与表达将来的从句next time you take it连用, 最好改为 You will be able to pass your driving test next time you take it.
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否定句 - 拒绝许可, 甚至禁止
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could一般不用来表示现在的许可, 而表示过去的许可
表示过去的一般许可, could与was/were allowed to do可以互换
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could表示'建议'
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Shall I, Shall we
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may/might (just) as well
这组情态动词表示"建议换另一种方式做某事", 可译成"倒不如""不妨""最好"
A: I’ll go on Monday by train. 我将在周一坐火车去
B: You might just as well wait till Wednesday and go by plane. 你不妨等到周三坐飞机去
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should和ought to表示'忠告'
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should表示'忠告'与could表示'建议'的比较
should表示强烈的, 明确的忠告; could表示建议某事的可能性
A: John doesn’t feel good. He has a bad stomachache.
B1: He should see a doctor.
B2: Well, he could see a doctor, or he could simply stay in bed for a day and hope he feels better tomorrow.
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had better表示'忠告'
had better在表示"忠告"时, 有时会暗含"如果不这么做, 就会有不良后果"的意思, 而should则更为中性
A: The phone’s ringing.
B1: That’ll be for me. 是表示很确定的预测, 即"肯定是我的电话"
B2: I’ll get it. 表示自己愿意去接这个电话, 是表示意愿, 即"我来接"
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意图(intention)
表示"意图"往往涉及将来准备好的事件 ("Intention"clearly involves a future event that is planned.)
I will borrow some money and buy a car.
妙语点睛 这里will表示说话人的意图和打算, 而不是在预测或表达意愿. 这句话相当于"I intend to borrow some money and buy a car."
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执意(insistence)
will表示"执意", 来源于其表示"意图"的含义, 因为当某人坚持自己的"意图"而不愿意改变时, 就变成了"执意" ("Will/won’t"can be used to emphatically tell someone of the speaker’s intention, or to forbid an action.) . 此时, 肯定的will表示"某人坚持要做某事", 比如说I will相当于I insist ("I will"can mean"I insist".) ; 否定的won’t表示"某人坚持不愿意做某事或禁止做某事", 比如说I won’t相当于I refuse ("I won’t"can mean"I refuse".)
在英语中表示"请求"往往都是用一般疑问句式, 因为"请求"的含义有三个来源:
- 询问听话人是否愿意, 这就是"Will/Would you...?"表示"请求" (questioning someone’s"willingness"to make a request)
- 询问听话人是否允许我做某事, 这就是"May I...?"或"Could/Can I...?"表示"请求" (questioning someone’s"permission"to make a request)
- 询问听话人是否能够帮助, 这就是"Could/Can you...?"表示"请求" (questioning someone’s"offer to help"to make a request)
思维总结
- 第一人称: Can/Could I...? May/Might I...?
- 第二人称: Can/Could you...? Will/Would you...?
- 其他各种疑问句形式的请求句型
- 带有wonder的陈述句所表示的礼貌的请求句型
When I was a child, my mother would read me a story at night before bed. 小时候, 晚上睡觉前妈妈常常会给我讲故事
用would表示过去习惯或重复的动作时, 还可以指某人一贯的行为 (typical of a person) . 这时, 往往用来批评人们的行为或表示对他人的行为怀有某种恼怒的情绪 (an annoying habit), 此时would要重读. 比如:
Jack would get lost, wouldn’t he? 杰克老是迷路, 是吧?
would表示过去反复发生或习惯性的动作 (habitual or repeated action in the past) . 此时, 与used to在用法上的区别是: used to不仅可以表示过去的动作, 还可以表示过去的状态; 而would只表示过去的动作
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should表示'竟然'
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should表示'万一'
Should常常用在lest, for fear that和in case引导的从句中, 表示"万一". 比如:
I’ve brought my umbrella in case it should rain. 我带伞了, 以防万一下雨
不过, 此时, 从句中的谓语也可用正常时态, 如一般现在时或一般过去时. 比如:
I’ve brought my umbrella in case it rains.
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用于第一人称的疑问句中: Shall I/we
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主动帮助
Shall I deliver the goods to your home address?
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请求指示
How shall I cook it?
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用于第三人称的疑问句中
在表示提供建议或请求给予指示的意思时, shall可以用于第三人称
A man wants to see you, sir. Shall he wait outside?
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用于第二, 三人称的陈述句中
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表示命令
It has been announced that candidates shall remain in their seats until all the papers have been collected.
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表示说话人的许诺
You shall have the money back next week.
= I promise you will have the money back next week.
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表示说话人的意愿, 威胁
They shall do as they are told. 他们一定要按照吩咐他们的去做
He shall be punished if he disobeys. 若他不服从, 定将受到处罚
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may还有一种特殊的用法, 即用在may ... but这样的结构中, 表示让步 (May can be used to express although clauses.) We may have our differences from time to time, but basically we trust one another's judgment.
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情态动词否定意义的深层结构 - 内部否定和外部否定
- external negation: not modal verb, 否定情态动词
- internal negation: modal not verb, 否定谓语动词
Paul won’t come.
如果把该句理解成外部否定, 即"Paul NOT will come.". 这里被否定的是情态动词will, 即"NOTwill", 这就表示"保罗不愿意来"
如果把该句理解成内部否定, 即"Paul will NOT come.". 这里被否定的是谓语动词come, 即"NOTcome", 这就表示"保罗来不了"
Could you not come? 内部否定, 你能不来吗?
Couldn't you come? 外部否定, 你不能来吗?
如果否定词not没有与情态动词的缩写形式一起被提至句首, 而是直接置于谓语动词之前, 这时被否定的就是谓语动词, 即"某事不应该做"; 而当否定词与情态动词的缩写形式放在一起时, 被否定的就是情态动词, 是用来加强"请求"的情态含义, 强调"某事应该做"
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内部否定和外部否定的使用规律
- 推测用法的情态动词, 一般是内部否定, 即否定的是谓语动作
- 基本用法的情态动词, 一般是外部否定, 即否定的是情态意义
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英文情态意义与中文情态意义的对应性
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英文情态动词的委婉表达在汉语中的缺失
英语中系动词的不同分类. 主要有下面四大类:
- 单纯表示主语的特征或状态: feel, look, sound, taste, smell, seem, appear
- 表示主语由一种状态转变为另一种状态: become, grow, get, turn, fall, go, come
- 表示主语保持某种状态: continue, remain, stay, keep, hold, rest, prove
- 近似于不及物动词的系动词: sit, act, arrive, blush, marry, die, be born
SVO: subject + verb + ojbect
该句型的谓语动词是双宾动词(dative verb), 这种动词后面所接的成分有人又有物. 一般来讲, 这里的"人"表示动作的接受者, 称作间接宾语(indirect object); "物"表示动作作用的对象, 是动作的承受者, 称作直接宾语(direct object). 间接宾语和直接宾语合起来称为双宾语
He showed the guard(间接宾语)his passport(直接宾语)
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谓语动词的特点
该句型的谓语动词是宾补动词(factitive verb), 这种动词后面接宾语, 而此宾语后又接补充说明宾语的补足语(object complement). 宾语和宾语补足语合起来称为复合宾语
常见的带复合宾语的动词有: appoint, believe, call, choose, consider, declare, elect, feel, find, keep, leave, let, make, name, nominate, prove, see, suppose和vote
They appointed John chairman.
I belive him to be true.
You can leave the door open.
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区分双宾语和复合宾语
在宾语后面加上be动词, 若能构成一个语义通顺的句子, 即是补足语. 因为宾语与宾语补足语的语义关系就相当于主语与主语补足语的关系, 即类似一个主系表结构, 所以, 在宾语后面添上一个be动词, 自然应该能构成一个逻辑语义通顺的句子. 而间接宾语与直接宾语二者之间就没有这样的语义关系
三大类基本从句:
- 名词从句
- 主语从句
- 宾语从句
- 表语从句
- 同位语从句
- 定语从句(形容词从句 relative clause): 限定修饰作用
- 状语从句(副词从句): 修饰动词, 形容词, 副词
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名词从句的本质: 三种句子充当四种成分
名词从句就是用三种句子(陈述句, 一般疑问句, 特殊疑问句)分别充当另外一个句子的四种句子成分(主语, 宾语, 表语, 同位语)
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引导名词从句的常用连接词
名词从句的引导词 对应的简单句类型 引导词是否作成分 引导词是否可以省略 连接词 that 陈述句 that 在从句中既不作成分, 也没有实义 在不影响句子意思的情況下, 宾语从句中的that 可以省去 连接词 whether, if 一般疑问句 whether, if在从句中不作成分, 但具有是否的含义 不能省去, 因为它们具有是否的含义 连接副词 when, Where, why, how; 连接代词 who, whom,what, which, whose 特殊疑问句 when, where, why,how 在从句中作状语; who,whom, what 在从何中作主语, 宾 语或表语; which, whose 在从句中作定语, 后面接名词连用 不能省去, 因为它们既作成分, 又有意义
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把that + 陈述句这一结构放在主语的位置即构成主语从句
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It is + 形容词/过去分词/名词短语 + that 从句
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It + 不及物动词 + that
It seems that...似乎...
It follows that...因此.../由此可见...
It happens that...碰巧...
It turns out that...结果证明是...
It comes about that
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that引导的主语从句
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whether及连接代词或连接副词引导的主语从句
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because引导的主语从句
(Just because someoen doesn't love you the way you want them to) doesn't mean (they don't love you with all they have).
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在及物动词后作宾语
I've learned that love, not time, heals all wounds. I've learned that everyone you meet deserves to be greeted with smile.
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在双宾动词后作直接宾语
I assure you that I had no intention of offending you.
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在双宾动词后作间接宾语
They gave who came to the meeting a pamphlet.
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在介词后作宾语
I find the best the way to concentrate is to make notes on what the teachers are saying.
There is disagreement among economists about what money is and how money is measured.
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宾语从句后置
宾语从句若出现在复合宾语结构中, 此时的宾语从句被置于补足语后面了, 因此是一个后置的宾语从句, 即: 动词 + it形式宾语 + 宾语补足语 + that宾语从句
We believe it true that the human body is also a kind of good conductor.
We must make it clear that the parties involved are to make every effort to curb the pollution.
Widely acknowledged as a great and important playwright, Eugene O’Neill brought to the United States stage what was probably its first really serious drama.
- 分词做状语: Widely acknowledged as a great and important playwright
- 主谓: Eugene O’Neill brought
- brought to, 介词短语做补足语: to the United States stage
- what做broght后置宾语: what was probably its first really serious drama.
- 正常语序: brought (what was probably its first really serious drama) to the United States stage
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that在宾语从句中省略的问题
一般来讲, 连词that引导宾语从句时, 可省去. 但若是几个宾语从句并列使用, 则that一般都不可省去. 原因很简单, 有了that的"指路牌"的作用, 便于读者快速判断句子结构
I once read that "the beauty of life is its changes" and that "the art of life lies in a constant readjustment to our surroundings".
所谓同位语, 就是用来补充说明名词的成分. 被补充说明的名词, 叫作先行词. 当用一个完整的句子来补充说明名词时, 即构成同位语从句. 所以, 同位语从句都位于一个名词的后面, 便构成了名词+连词+同位语从句这样的结构
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名词+that+陈述句
I have been left with the (knowledge) that (it's better to expecet nothing than to give everything and then be disappointed).
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名词+定语+that+陈述句
The statement (by the driver of the vehicle) that (he did not see the lorry was rejected by the court).
The latest purported taped message from Osama Bin Laden has raised(主谓结构) concern(宾语中心词) among European intelligence and law enforcement officials(后置介词定语) that their countries are now on his hit list(同位语).
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名词+谓语+that+陈述句
[Concens名词] [were raised谓语 ] [that witness might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories court to ensure guilty verdicts 陈述句].
[Evidence名词] [campe up谓语] that the specific speech sounds are recognized by babies as young as 6 months old.
Dreary months dragged by before the tragic news reached her that her beloved brother had been killed for anti-Nazi activities.
- 这是that引导的同位语从句, 补充说明先行词news的详细内容. 但这个同位语从句并没有紧跟在名词后面, 而是被谓语reached (her) 隔开. 这里的名词news作before引导的时间状语从句的主语
I realized that what I said was not exactly what I meant to say.
- 在that引导的宾语从句中同时含有what引导的主语从句what I said和what引导的表语从句what I meant to say
The question is how what you have learned can be put into practice.
- 在how引导的表语从句中含有what引导的主语从句what you have learned. how引导的从句的谓语是can be put into practice, 而what引导的从句的谓语是have learned
在分析句子结构时, 我们可以先找到句中的各个谓语动词, 然后再找连词. 又因为连词后面必然是从句, 而从句中必然有谓语动词, 因此, 在每个连词后面必然要找到一个与之相应的从句的谓语动词. 当把连词与对应的谓语动词划分清楚之后, 整个难句的结构也就迎刃而解了. 在英语中, 有N个谓语动词, 就会对应有N-1个连词以及N-1个对应的从句, 这就是我提出的连词与动词的配比原则
That(主语从句) the seas are being overfished has been known for years. What(主语从句) researchers such as Ransom Myers and Boris Worm have shown is just how(表语从句) fast things are changing.
No one takes much interest in the marks [a little child gets on his test 后置定语]; what(主语从句) we are interested in is whether(表语从句) we can conclude from his mark [on the test 定语] that(宾语从句) the child will do better or worse than(比较从句) other children of his age at tasks which(定语从句) we think require "general intelligence"
- 句子分析:
- 主语从句: what we are interested in
- 主句谓语: is
- 表语从句:
- 表语从句中主谓结构: whether we can conclude from his mark [on the test 定语]
- 表语从句中宾语从句:
- 宾语从句主谓结构: that the child will do better or worse
- 分割do better worse...at, 插入比较结构: than other children of his age
- 介词短语:
- 中心词: at tasks
- 定语从句: which
- 插入语: we think
- 定语从句谓语结构: require "general intelligence"
- 这个句子是一个主系表结构, 主语是what引导的从句what we are interested in, 即是一个主语从句, 其谓语动词是are. 表语是whether引导的从句whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks which we think require "general intelligence", 即是一个表语从句, 其谓语动词是can conclude
- 这个表语从句较为复杂, 具体来说, 表语从句的谓语conclude后面带了一个that引导的宾语从句that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks. 这里的比较结构than other children of his age分隔了do better or worse与at的语义搭配, 实际上本来应该是do better or worse...at tasks. 这里than引导的是一个比较状语从句. 在tasks后面带有一个定语从句which we think require "general intelligence". 特别要注意的是, 定语从句的谓语是require, 而we think是插入语. 关于定语从句的插入语, 请参看第二章"定语从句"中的2.17节. 总之, 这个句子含有的从句包括 (以及连词与从句的谓语动词的配对关系是): 主语从句 (what...are), 表语从句 (whether...can conclude), 宾语从句 (that...will do), 比较状语从句 (than...do, 这个do被省略了) 以及定语从句 (which...require)
On the other hand, he did not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that(同位语) while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning.
- 主语: he
- 谓语: did not accept
- 宾语补足语: as well founded
- 宾语:
- 宾语和新词: the charge
- 分词短语做后置定语: made by some of his critics
- 同位语从句:
- 让步状语从句: that while he was a good observer
- 主句: he had no power of reasonings
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先行词
被定语从句所修饰的对象称为先行词
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关系词
重复指代先行词, 起连接主句和从句的作用, 并且在定语从句中充当一定成分的连接词称为关系词. 关系词有两个作用:
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代词的作用: 重复指代先行词并且在定语从句中充当一定成分
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连接作用: 即连接主句和从句
关系词可以分为两大类: 关系代词和关系副词:
- 关系代词主要包括who, whom, which, that和whose, 这些词主要起着代词的作用, 在定语从句里充当主语或宾语(但whose作定语)
- 关系副词则包括when, where和why, 这些词主要起着副词的作用, 在定语从句里充当状语(不作主语或宾语)
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关系词用作从句的主语
The woman who lives next door is a famous dancer.
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关系词用作从句中动词的宾语
I'd really like to find a friend who I can trust completely.
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关系词用作从句中介词的宾语
I'm taking about friends who you can share almost everything with.
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作宾语的关系词可以省去
被定语从句所修饰的对象叫作antecedent, 英文中对这个词的解释是a word, phrase, clause, or sentence to which a pronoun refers, 即表示"代词所指代的词, 短语, 从句或句子"
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word 先行词
A rich person is not one who has the most, but one who needs the least.
Remember that the best relationship is one who where your love for each other is greater than your need for each other.
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phase 先行词
In Europe, as elsewhere, multi-media groups have been increasingly successful groups which bring together television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another.
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clause 先行词
He said that he had non time, which isn't true.
The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connections with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse languages could be
- 主谓: The Greeks assumed
- 宾语从句: that the structure of language had some connections with the process of thought,
- 定语从句, 先行词是宾语从句: which took root in Europe
- 时间状语, 修饰定语从句谓语took root: long before people realized how diverse languages could be
- 希腊人认为, 语言结构与思维过程之间存在着某种联系. 这一观点早在人们尚未认识到语言的千差万别以前就已在欧洲扎下了根
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sentence 先行词
My girlfriend likes dancing with other guys, which really drives me crazy.
Perhaps it it human to appreciate little that which we have and to long for that which we have not.
- it it human to appreciate little that which we have
- and
- it it human to appreciate to long for that which we have not.
- 或许, "不惜已获, 贪求不得"是人类的共同弱点吧
Behaviorists suggest that the child who is raised in an environment where there are many stimuli which develop his or her capacity for appropriate responses will experience greater intellectual development
在先行词与关系词之间插入其他的定语, 这种情形最常见. 这是由于先行词同时带有多个定语, 其中包括定语从句. 定语从句与其他定语相比, 一般较长, 结构也较复杂, 因此, 按照英语的"尾重原则 (principle of end weight) ", 结构复杂的定语从句置于其他定语后边, 从而造成与先行词隔离
The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissovled the soil solution before they can be taken into the root.
- 主语中心词: The mineral elements
- 介词短语修饰elements: from the soil
- 定语从句修饰elements: that are usable by the plant
- 主语的谓语: must be dissovled the soil solution before they can be taken into the root
Changes in the social structure may indirectly affect juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that lead to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment in general make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain.
造成先行词与关系词被分隔的第二种情形, 就是在先行词与关系词之间插入一个状语, 这个状语一般是修饰主句的谓语动词
Never leave that until tomorrow which you can do today.
Word does that for a language which brick does for a building.
Politics is probably the only business in the word where they spend the most money when they have the least number of available customers to pitch to.
If there is anything in the world that a young man should be more grateful for than another, it is the poverty which necessitates starting life under very great disadvantage.
这是因为先行词在主句中作主语, 然后它又被一个定语从句所修饰, 而定语从句一般都会比主句谓语的结构复杂. 因此, 按照英语的"尾重原则 (principle of end weight) ", 结构复杂的定语从句置于主句谓语后边, 从而造成关系词与先行词被隔离
It can be predicated, however, that from time to time questions will arise which will require specific scientific answers.
- 这里的that引导的是一个主语从句, 其中从句的主语是questions, 其后面接一个which引导的定语从句, 但这个定语从句并没有紧跟在名词questions后边, 而是被谓语will arise隔开
Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassioned manner that natural scientists used for the study of natural phenomena.
判断先行词主要可以根据两个方面:
- 看主句
- 结合先行词的结构特点: 先行词可能是一个词, 短语, 分句或完整的句子等
- 结合先行词的位置特点: 先行词通常与定语从句是"手拉手"在一起的, 但也可能被分隔两处. 被分隔的情况有三种, 即被定语, 状语或谓语分隔
- 看定语从句
- 结合定语从句的意思: 定语从句的内容必然是与先行词密切相关的
- 结合定语从句中的关键词: 比如, 第2.2.3小节的例句2中, natural scientist与social science构成的反义对照关系
- 结合定语从句的谓语单复数: 比如, 第2.3节的例句4中的are表明elements是先行词
- 结合定语从句的关系词: 比如, 第2.3节的例句6中, which的先行词不可能是listener
关系代词that的意义和用法主要有以下三点:
- that既可指人也可指物, 指物时可以替换which, 指人时可以替换who
- that不用在非限制性定语从句中 (关于限制性和非限制性定语从句, 详见3.5节)
- that不能用于介词的后面 (同who一样)
用 that 的情况:
- 先行词中同时出现人和物时, 用that
- 先行词为指物的all, little, few, much, none和the first时, 用that
- 先行词是不定代词something, anything, nothing和everything时, 一般用that
- 先行词被any, only, all, every, no, some, much, few, little, 序数词, 形容词的最高级, the only, the one, the very, the right和the last 等成分修饰时, 用that
- that不用在非限制性定语从句中
- that不能用于介词后面
关系代词一般都是单独使用, 它们后面不接名词. 但whose则不同, 它后面必须接一个名词, 而不能单独使用. 因此, whose用作关系词确切来讲应该算作是关系形容词, 或者叫关系限定词. 另外, whose同that一样, 既可以指人, 也可以指物
带有"介词+关系代词"的定语从句可以有四种写法:
- 关系代词 + 介词: She is not a person who you can rely on.
- 介词 + 关系代词: She is not a person on whom you can rely.
- 介词 + 关系代词 + 不定式: She is not a person on whom to rely.
- 不定式 + 介词: She is not a person to rely on.
-
看从句的动词: 所用介词须与定语从句中的动词构成固定搭配 (最常见)
The girl with whom you work is his girlfriend.
He is the man on whom I think you can depend.
-
看从句的形容词: 所用介词须与定语从句中的形容词构成固定搭配 (比较常见)
We assume that the meanings of these underwater sounds are similar to those whih which we are familiar on land.
I'm your husband, than whom a kinder husband does not exist
- A kinder husband than me does not exist.
-
看从句的名词: 所用介词须与定语从句中的名词构成固定搭配 (少见)
I am sending you an inquiry, to which your prompt attention is highly appreciated.
with ease, at the rate, in the direction, to the extent, to the degree, at the temperature, by the means, by the mode, in a culture, in practice
The ease with which Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence was unbelievale
- Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence with ease and the ease was unbelievable.
- The ease (Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence with which) was unbelievable.
About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction, and the rate at which they are being destroyed has increased.
- The rate (they are being destroyed at which) has increased.
America's capacity utilization has reached historical high levels earlier this year, and it jobless rate has fallen below most estimates of the natural rate of unemployment - the rate below which inflation has taken off in the past.s
There are things you would love to hear but you will never hear it from the person from whom you would like to hear it, but don't be deaf to hear it from the person who says it with heart.
该句型的结构特点如下:
- 该句型的结构往往是不定代词/数量词/形容词的比较级或最高级 + of which/whom, 用来表示数量或某种特点. 具体来讲, 在介词of前面常出现的词包括: all, each, both, either, neither, none, little, few, many, much, some, most, any, the majority, half, several, a number, half, none以及数字和形容词的最高级等等
- 值得注意的是, 这里of前面的成分都可以后移至定语从句中. 比如上面的例句, 我们既可以说10, 000 acres of which, 也可以说of which 10, 000 acres
- of which只能用于物, whose既能用于人又能用于物
The company, of which Max Harrison was until recently the chairman, has made loss of three million pounds this year.
The total cutivated area is 13, 000 acres, of which 10, 000 acres are irrigated.
关系代词前面的介词有时与固定的介宾短语结构有关, 比如in this case, in one's honor和with one's help等, 它们若出现在定语从句中, 则会相应地变成in which case, in whose honor和with whose help
a few of which, of which a few, to the degree, elect...to..., identify oneself with
介词+关系代词+从句谓语+从句主语, 即一个将整个谓语放在主语前面的全部倒装结构. 采用倒装往往是因为定语从句的主语较复杂, 所以按照英语的尾重原则后置了
They're all groaning about soaring heal budgest, the fastest-growing component of which are pharmaceutical costs.
- of which pharmaceutical costs are the fastest-growing component
This is the world out of which grows the hope, for the first time in history, of a society where there will be freedom from want and freedom from fear.
- For the first time in history, the hope of the society (where there will be freedom from want and freedom from fear) grows out of which (the world)
The farmer used wood to build a house in which he could store grains
- The farmer used wood to build a house in which to store grains.
- The farmer used wood to build a house to store grains in.
需要提醒大家的是, 在使用这一结构时我们应注意以下几点:
- "介词+关系代词"不能用一个关系副词来替换. 比如不能说"The farmer used wood to build a house where to store grains. *"
- 有介词, 有关系代词时, 不能将介词置于句末. 比如不能说"The farmer used wood to build a house which to store grains in. *"
- 若没有介词, 我们不能采用"半定语从句半不定式"的混合形式作后置定语. 比如不能说"I can't think of anybody whom to invite. *". 而要说"I can't think of anybody to invite.", 或者"I can't think of anybody who I should invite.
as引导的非限定性定语从句的特点主要有两个:
-
as所指代的先行词通常都是一个完整的句子
-
as引导的定语从句位置很灵活, 可以在句首, 句中或句末
-
as引导的定语从句位置在句首
as引导的非限定性定语从句可以放在句首, 此时as指代后面的整个主句. 换句话说, 关系代词as的先行词可以出现在as后边. 这点不同于which及任何其他关系词, 因为which及其他关系词所指代的先行词必须出现在它们的前面, 因此which引导的非限定性定语从句不能放在句首, 这是as和which的重要区别
As is so often pointed out, knowledge is two-edged weapon which can be used equally for good or evil.
-
as引导的定语从句位置在句中
as引导的非限定性定语从句放在句中, 往往会分隔主句中的某两个成分, 因此在分析句子时要跳过这个as引导的从句, 直接将从句的前后两个成分联系起来看, 这样才便于理解. 尽管as引导的从句放在句中, 但as所指代的先行词依然是主句, 只不过此时的主句是被as引导的从句分隔成了前后两部分. 我们知道, which引导的非限定性定语从句也可以放在句中, 但which的先行词必须出现在其前面
Stratford-on-Avon, as we all know, has only one industry-William Shakespeare-but there are two distinctly separate and increasingly hostile branches.
-
as引导的定语从句位置在句末
因为在as引导的定语从句中, as有正好..., 就像..., 由...而知的含义, 所以, 当主句和从句在内容上一致时, 或者说从句内容是顺着主句的意思说下来时, 通常用as. 若主句和从句在内容上不一致, 或从句的内容对主句的内容起消极作用, 即对主句内容起反对, 排斥, 否定等作用时, 则多用which
She has married again, as was expected.
She has married again, which was unexpected.
-
as引导限定性定语从句只能用在一些固定结构中, 即只能用在由such as, the same as, as...as修饰的先行词的后面. as在定语从句中可以作主语, 宾语或表语. as的先行词可以是人, 也可以是物
-
作主语
He'll repeat such points as are discussed in the book.
- He'll repeat the points that are discussed in the book.
Such student as works hard will be to succeed.
The new map of the ocean floor shows the locations of twice as any undersea volcanoes as were previously thought to exist.
-
作宾语
He tried to make as few mistakes as he could avoid.
The instrument is not such an instrument as I saw on the exhibition.
-
作表语
He is not such a fool as we would assume him to be.
than引导的定语从句有如下用法特点:
- than可作关系代词引导定语从句, 在从句中一般作主语, 宾语
- than前面的主句需有形容词的比较级形式
- 比较级所修饰的名词即为先行词
Children are likely to have less supervision at home than was common in the traditional family structure
- Children are likely to have the supervision at home that was common in the traditional family structure
- Children are likely to have the same supervision at home as was common in the traditional family structure
Don't drink more wine than is good for health.
Don't give him more money than is needed, since money will burn a hole in his pocket.
- 从but所表达的意义来看, but作关系代词具有否定意义, 相当于that...not. 因此but后面接的定语从句在形式上是肯定的, 但在意义上是否定的
- 从主句的结构上来看, but所修饰的先行词往往会被一个否定词修饰, 换句话说, but常与具有否定意义的主句连用. 这样一来, 主句中的否定和but本身的否定意义结合起来即构成双重否定, 表达一个肯定意思
- but可指人也可指物, 在句中作主语, 宾语
- but通常只引导限定性定语从句
There are few rules of grammer but have exceptions; the exception prvoes the rule. 很少有语法规则时没有例外的, 因为有例外才能证明规则存在
- There are few rules of grammer that don't have exceptions.
There is no man but errs.
- There is no man who doesn't errs
There are very few people in this club but he knows
- There are very few people in this club whom he doesn't knows
what的用法与我们在前面讨论过的所有关系代词在结构上有一个重大的区别, 那就是what不能指代先行词, 即what前面不能有名词, 换句话说, what引导的从句并不能修饰主句中的任何先行词
我们可以从句子的结构和what本身的意义这两个不同的角度来分析what的用法特点. 以上是从句子的结构上来看, what引导的从句不能修饰前面的名词. 但是从what本身的意义上来看, what在从句中大多数情况下是没有疑问意义的, 即不翻译成什么, 而是理解为the things that, all that或something that. 因此, 从what本身的含义这个角度, 我们可以把what看作是一个特殊的关系代词, 它是先行词和关系代词的结合体, 这就是为什么在本节标题中what被称为缩合关系代词. 或者说what本身的含义里已经含有一个隐性的先行词了, 这也就解释了为什么what前面不能再有显性的先行词
Most of what food elephants eat is brought to their mouths by their trunks
- Most of the food which elephants eat is brought to their mouths by their trunks.
She is not what she used to be.
- She is not the girl that she used to be.
Today's vessels can find their prey using satellites and sonar, which were not available 50 years ago. That means a higher proportion of what is in the sea is being caught.
- 主谓: That means
- 宾语从句主语部分: a higher proportion of what is in the sea
- 宾语从句谓语部分: is being caught.
One difficulty is that almost all of what is called behavioral science continues to trace behavior to states of mind, feelings, traits of character, human nature, and so
- 主系结构: One difficulty is
- 表语从句:
- 主语: that almost all of what is called behavioral science
- 谓语: continues to trace behavior to states of mind, feelings, traits of character, human nature, and so
当what后面接名词时, what作关系形容词, 其结构是what+名词, 相当于all the+名词+that, 意思为所有的...尽可能多的.... 所以, 此时的what同样没有疑问含义. 这里的what一般表示物, 而不表示人
Most of the what food elephants eat is brought to their mouths by their trunks.
What money I have has been given to you.
The accident completely wiped out what little sight he had left.
what从句常用在一些结构中, 比如表示所谓的: what is called, what can be called, what we call, what used to call
此外还有其他结构, 比如: what they described as, what they regarded as, what you may see as等等. 这些结构可以作插入语, 一般放在动词或介词后面作宾语
It's hard to pick up what you may see as someone else's leftovers, especially when it's a good friend's.
关系代词和关系副词最大的区别是, 它们在定语从句中充当的成分不同. 关系代词在定语从句中主要是作主语或宾语 (也可以作表语或宾语补足语) , 而关系副词只能在从句中作状语, 修饰从句中的谓语动词
关系副词when的用法特点有:
- when在定语从句中作时间状语, 修饰从句谓语动词
- 其前面的先行词必须是表示时间的名词, 如day, year, time等
- 可引导限定性和非限定性定语从句
因为用when来引导定语从句的前提条件不仅是先行词要表示时间, 更重要的是when 要在定语从句中作时间状语. 换句话说, 若定语从句不是缺少状语, 而是缺少主语或宾语, 那么我们就要用which或that来引导定语从句, 即使先行名词是表示时间的
I’ll never forget the time which I spent on campus.
I’ll never forget the day when we first met in the park.
Mercury's velocity is so much greater than the Earth's that it completes more than four revolutions around the Sun in the time that it takes the Earth to complete one.
- 这里的定语从句的结构应该是: it takes sb. some time to do sth., 表示"花费某人多少时间做某事", 所以这里that的后面缺少了形式主语it (这里it指代不定式to complete one) . 而that指代先行词the time, 在定语从句中充当takes的直接宾语 (the Earth是间接宾语)
when引导的定语从句和时间状语从句有如下三点不同:
- 结构上的不同 - 有无时间名词
若when引导定语从句, 则when的前面必然有表示时间的名词 (如上面例句2中的the latest dates), 即先行词. 若when引导时间状语从句, 则其前面往往没有表示时间的名词
-
when的作用不同
当when引导定语从句时, 此时when是指代表示时间的先行词, 在定语从句中作时间状语, 修饰从句的谓语
当when引导时间状语从句时, 此时when不在从句中作任何成分 (比如不是作状语来修饰从句谓语), 只起连接主句和从句的作用. 不过需要注意的是, when引导的时间从句修饰主句的谓语, 作主句谓语的时间状语
一句话来区分when的两类从句: 在when引导的定语从句里, 从句谓语的状语是when这个词, 而在when引导的时间从句里, 作主句谓语的状语是when引导的从句, 而不是when这个词
-
when的译法不同
when引导定语从句, 如果从句谓语是过去时, 则when表示从句谓语动作发生的过去时间, 因而一般译成当时, 那时; 如果从句谓语是表示将来的动作, 则when表示从句谓语动作发生的将来时间, 因而常译成到时, 届时, 或在翻译时根据上下文灵活处理.
而引导时间状语从句的when, 通常都是译成当...时候
This trend began during the Second World War, when several governments came to the conclusion that the specific demands that a government wants to make of its scientific establishment cannot generally be foreseen in detail.
- 主谓状: This trend began during the Second World War
- when引导的定语从句:
- when定语从句修饰 war: when several governments came to the conclusion
- 同位语从句
- 同位语主语:
- 中心词: that the specific demands
- demands定语: that a government wants to make of its scientific establishment
- 同位语谓语: cannot generally be foreseen in detail.
- 同位语主语:
- 同位语从句
- when定语从句修饰 war: when several governments came to the conclusion
- 这种趋势始于第二次世界大战期间, 当时一些国家的政府得出结论: 政府要向科研机构提出的具体要求通常是无法详尽预见的
Pearson has pieced together the work of hundreds of researchers around the world to produce a unique millennium technology calendar that gives the latest dates when we can expect hundreds of key breakthroughs and discoveries to take place.
- 主谓结构: Pearson has pieced together
- 宾语: the work of hundreds of researchers around the world
- 不定式结果状语从句:
- 不定式宾语: to produce a unique millennium technology calendar
- calendar定语从句: that gives the latest dates
- lastest dates定语: when we can expect hundreds of key breakthroughs and discoveries to take place.
- calendar定语从句: that gives the latest dates
- 不定式宾语: to produce a unique millennium technology calendar
- 皮尔逊汇集世界各地数百位研究人员的成果, 编制了一个独特的新技术万年历, 它列出了人们有望看到数百项重大突破和发现的最迟日期
While even the modestly educated sought an elevated tone when they put pen to paper before the 1960s, even the most well regarded writing since then has sought to capture spoken English on the page.
- 在20世纪60年代之前, 当人们伏案写作时, 即使受教育不多的人也追求一种高雅的风格, 而从那以后, 即使是令人景仰的文章作品也在追求一种口语风格
关系副词where的用法特点有:
- where在定语从句中作地点状语, 修饰从句谓语动词
- 其前面的先行词通常是表示地点的名词, 如place, house等
- 可引导限定性和非限定性定语从句
Literature is the place where the past meets the present to contemplate the future.
定语从句不是缺少状语, 而是缺少主语或宾语, 则要用which或that引导定语从句, 即使先行词是表示地点
我们可以把这种不表示地点的名词解释成一种含有地点意义的名词, 这些名词往往是一些抽象名词, 比如dream, case, situation, point
where引导的这两种从句有如下两点不同:
- 结构上的不同
若where引导定语从句, 则where的前面必然有表示地点的名词
若where引导地点状语从句, 则其前面往往没有表示地点的名词
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where的作用不同
当where引导定语从句时, 指代表示地点的先行词在定语从句中作地点状语, 修饰从句的谓语
当where引导地点状语从句时, 不在从句中充当任何成分 (比如不是作状语来修饰从句的谓语), 只起连接主句和从句的作用. 不过需要注意的是, where引导的地点状语从句修饰主句的谓语, 作主句谓语的地点状语
一句话来区分where引导的两类从句: 在where引导的定语从句中, 作从句谓语的状语是where这个词, 而在where引导的地点状语从句中, 作主句谓语的状语是整个where引导的从句, 而不是where这个词
45 percent of the world's population live where mosquitoes transmit malaria.
Approximately 45 percent of the world's population live in the climate zone where mosquitoes transmit malaria
The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, where they are not extremely unattractive.
We stopped for a minute to walk out to where we had seen George Mills work in the mud the night before.
- 从结构上看, 这里的where引导的从句是作介词to的宾语, 所以应该是一个宾语从句. 但从where的意义上来看, 这里的where相当于说the place where, 即这个where完全类似我们在2.11小节中讨论过的what的用法, 是一个缩合关系词, 也就是说where本身含有一个"隐性"的先行词the place. 所以从句where we had seen George Mills work in the mud the night before可以改写成一个定语从句the place where we had seen George Mills work in the mud the night before, 表示"我们曾经看到乔治·米尔斯前一天晚上在泥里工作的地方"
- 综上所述, where也可以像what那样被用作一个缩合关系词来引导一个既可以看作是特殊的定语从句也可以看作是名词从句的从句
关系副词why的用法较简单, 其用法特点有:
- why在定语从句中作原因状语, 修饰从句的谓语动词
- 其先行词必须是表示原因的名词, 如reason, cause等
- 只引导限定性定语从句. 这点不同于when和where
how不可以作为表示方式的关系副词. 在英语中, 若要表示方式, 我们用以下四种句型:
- the way + 从句
- the way that + 从句
- the way in which + 从句
- the manner that + 从句
You know the old golden ruls, "Care for others the way (that) you would like them to care for you".
所谓带有插入语的定语从句, 是指在某些定语从句的关系词后面紧跟着一个插入语. 插入语可以分为两类:
- 插入一个主谓结构
- 插入其他各种成分, 如插入各种从句
插入语一般只能放在定语从句的关系词后面
定语从句的关系词后面插入的往往是一些表达个人主观观点的主谓结构, 如they think, he said, they believe, he claimed, they assume等等. 这些主谓结构紧跟在关系代词后面, 但不影响定语从句原来的结构, 因而并非构成定语从句的主谓语. 带有插入语的定语从句的结构主要有两种:
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作主语的关系词 + 插入语 + 定语从句的谓语部分
Many students face problems when they have to study a subject that they think is difficult.
Hilton is building its own hotel there, which you may be sure will be decorated with Hamlet Hamburger Bars, the Lear Lounge, the Banquo Banqueting Room, and so forth, and will be very expensive.
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作宾语的关系词 + 插入语 + 定语从句的主谓部分
The millionaire had a very ugly girl
whoI could not have dreamed many boysfell in love with.What is harder to establish is whether the productivity revolution
thatbusinessmen assume they arepresiding overis for real.They pointed out the damage which they supposed
thathad been done by last night's storm. -
what从句 + 插入语
There was a very interesting remark in a book by an Englishman that I read recently giving what he thought was a reason for this American characteristic.
- 中心词 remark: There was a very interesting remark
- 介词短语修饰 remark: in a book
- 并列定语修饰 book: by an Englishman
- 并列定语修饰 book: that I read recently
- 分词短语修饰 remark:
- 分词: giving
- giving 宾语从句
- 主语: what
- 插入语: he thought
- 谓语: was a reason for this American characteristic.
- 我最近看过一本书, 它是由一个英国人写的, 我还记得书里有一句十分有趣的话, 作者认为这句话说明了美国人为什么是这种性格
Real friends are those who, when you’ve made a fool of yourself, don't feel that you’ve done a permanent job.
- 主语主系表: Real friends are those
- 定语从句, 修饰 those
- who 做主语: who,
- 插入语, when引导的时间状语: when you’ve made a fool of yourself,
- 谓语: don't feel that you’ve done a permanent job.
The casino issued to him, as a good customer, a "Fun Card", which when used in the casino earns points for meals and drinks, and enables the casino to track the user's gambling activities.
- 主谓: The casino issued
- 间接宾语: to him, as a good customer,
- 直接宾语:
- 中心词: a "Fun Card",
- 宾语从句关系, 指 Fun Card: which
- 插入时间从句: when used in the casino
- 谓语: earns points for meals and drinks, and enables the casino to track the user's gambling activities.
- 若是把这个省略的状语从句when used in the casino放在定语从句的末尾便成了which earns points for meals and drinks, and enables the casino to track the user's gambling activities when used in the casino, 但由于定语从句的谓语部分 (earns...and enables...) 过长, 这样就会使when引导的从句的意思与Fun Card有脱节之嫌, 所以为了表意上的需要而将when引导的从句提前
When we honestly ask ourselves which person in our lives means the most to us, we often find that it is those who, instead of giving much advice, solutions, or cures, have chosen rather to share our pain and touch our wounds with a gentle and tender hand.
The girl who we supposed was drowned came back.
- 插入语: we supposed
The girl that we supposed drowned came back.
- We supposed the girl drowned 主谓宾 + 宾补
所谓并列定语从句, 是指两个或两个以上的定语从句, 通过and, but, or等并列连词连接共同修饰一个先行词
The errors occurring in the exam often result from the things that you don't know or that you think you know.
I’m talking about friends who care deeply about each other, who support each other, and who make life worth living. I’m talking about friends who you can share almost everything with
英语中还有一种双层定语从句, 其特点是:
- 一个先行词首先被一个限定性定语从句所修饰, 来表示一个特定的意思, 然后，这个 [先行词 + 限定性定语从句] 再被另外一个限定性定语从句所修饰 { [先行词 + 限定性定语从句] + 限定性定语从句 }
- 这两个限定性定语从句是处在不同层次上的, 并不像并列定语从句那样是同一个先行词后面带有两个并列的定语从句, 因而不能用连词and, but, or等来连接它们
He is {[ the only person that we know ] who speaks so many foreign languages }.
- 第一层定语从句 that we know 的先行词为 the only person
- 第二层定语从句 who speaks so many foreign languages 的先行词为 the only person that we know
There is {[ nothing you can do, achieve, or buy ] that will outshine the peace, joy and happiness of being in communication with the partner you love }.
{[ What was it (that) you started to tell me in the restaurant ] that you didn't understand about me }?
- 第一层定语从句 you started to tell me in the restaurant 的先行词为 what
- 第二层定语从句 that you didn't understand about me 的先行词为 what...you started to tell me in the restaurant
The only {[ system (that) I know ] which will help you to remember what you have heard at a lecture } is that of keeping notes.
I would appreciate {[ any ideas (that) you might think of ] that would be especially pertinent to Chinese students }.
There are probably no {[ questions (that) we can think up ] that can't be answered, sooner or later }, including even the matter of consciousness.
Customs inspectors are hard to fool. They see scores of travelers every day. They soon learn how to pick out a person who may be smuggling something across the border. The clue may be in the way the person walks. Or it may be in the way he talks. Or it may be just {[ a strange feeling the inspector has ] that makes him suspect a person of smuggling }.
定语从句的限制性 (defining relative clause) 和非限制性 (non-defining relative clause) 二者在形式上的区别是: 在限制性定语从句中, 先行词和关系词之间不用逗号隔开, 而非限制性定语从句则需要逗号隔开
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限制性定语从句 - 不用逗号隔开
限制性定语从句是用来对一个名词提供必要的信息 (a defining relative clause defines or gives essential information about a noun), 以说明定语从句所修饰的先行词的身份或性质, 或用来限制先行词所指的范围. 若去掉限制性定语从句, 则主句部分的含义不明确, 或意义不完整, 所以不能用逗号来分隔先行词和定语从句
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非限制性定语从句 - 用逗号隔开
非限制性定语从句用来提供附加的而非必要的信息, 只是对先行词做进一步的解释, 补充或说明(a non-defining relative clause gives optional information about a noun). 若去掉此定语从句, 整个主句的意义一样很明确, 不会引起误解和歧义
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专有名词
专有名词本身的意思已经很完整, 不需要限制, 用定语从句只是对它进行补充说明
My mother, who is 50 this year, lives with me now.
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类指名词
普通名词若是用来表示类指, 即表示的是一类事物, 而非具体的某一个事物, 此时, 其后也宜用非限制性定语从句
An elephant, which is the earth's largest land manmal, has few natural enemies other than human beings.
One of the elephants which we saw at the zoo had only one tusk.
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用或不用逗号, 句意有差别
He has a daughter who works in a hospital 表示他有多个女儿, 其中有一个在医院工作
He has a daughter, who works in a hospital 强调他有一个女儿, 不是儿子, 在医院工作纯粹是补充信息
The food which wasn’t in the fridge all went off. 表示部分食物坏了, 即没有放在冰箱里的那部分食物坏了
The food, which wasn’t in the fridge, all went off. 表示食物都坏了, 因为没有放在冰箱里. 此时定语从句补充说明了食物变质的原因, 是因为没有放在冰箱里 (原因状语)
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非限制性定语从句的翻译
限制性定语从句一般翻译成定语的形式**...的**, 而非限制性定语从句往往会译成各种状语形式
- The food, which wasn’t in the fridge, all went off. 食物都坏了, 因为没有放在冰箱里. (译成原因状语从句)
- The Ambassador gave a dinner to the scientists, with whom he especially wished to talk 大使宴请了那些科学家, 因为他特别想与他们交谈一下. (译成原因状语从句)
- The people were desperate for work, any work, which could support their family 人们急于找到工作, 什么工作都行, 只要能养家糊口. (译成条件状语从句)
- The millionaire had another house built, which he didn’t need at all 那位百万富翁又建了一幢房子, 尽管他并不需要. (译成让步状语从句)
- They tried to stamp out the revolt, which spread all the more furiously throughout the country. 起义依然声势浩大地遍布全国, 尽管他们试图镇压. (译成让步状语从句)
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从结构上区分: that是否作成分
that在定语从句中要充当成分, 比如作从句的主语或宾语; 而that在同位语从句中不充当任何成分, 仅起连词的作用. 换句话说, 定语从句的结构是名词+that+不完整的句子, 而同位语从句的结构是名词 + that+完整的陈述句
The rumor that he spread everywhere turned out to be untrue. (定于从句, that 做 spread 宾语)
The rumor that Tom was a thief turned out to be untrue. (同位语)
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从意义上区分: that引导的从句的意义不同
两类从句在意义上也不同: 定语从句相当于形容词, 对先行词起修饰, 描述和限制的作用; 同位语从句相当于一个名词, 是对其前面名词内容的具体表述, 二者是同位关系
从本质上来讲, 状语从句就是用不同的连词将几个分句连接起来, 以表达分句之间特定的逻辑语义关系. 因此, 掌握引导九类状语从句的有关连接词的用法特点和意义是学习状语从句的关键. 只要记住连接词就能够识别是何种状语从句, 从而正确地分析句子结构并理解句子的意思
| 分类 | 常用连接词 | 特殊连接词 |
|---|---|---|
| 时间 | when, while, as, before, after, since, till, until, as soon as | 1. 一些表示时间的名词(从句先发生): the moment/instant/minute/day | next time | every time 2. 一些副词: instantly | immediately | directly 3. 固定搭配的连词(主句先发生): no sooner.. than | hardly/scarcely..when | by the time |
| 地点 | where | wherever, anywhere, everywhere |
| 原因 | because, as, for, since | because of | due to | owing to | seeing/considering/now/given that | in that | in as/so much as | no that...but that |
| 结果 | so... that, so that, such...that, such that | to the degree/extent that, to such a degree/extent that |
| 目的 | so that, in order that, that | lest | for fear that | in case | in the hope that | on/for purpose that | to the end that |
| 条件 | if, unless | suppose/supposing | providing/provided | on condition that | so/as long as | only if | if only | must/have to do...if...be to do |
| 让步 | though, although, even though, even if | 1.while(放句首), as(倒装) 2. (whate, who, which, how, when, where)-ever, whether...or 3. "as+形容词+as+主谓"结构用在句首 4. 位于句首的be倒装 |
| 方式 | as, like, as if, as though, the way | |
| 比较 | as, than | the more.. | the more | just as..so.. | not so much...as | no more...than | not...any more than | the more...the more | A is to B what/as C is to D |
- I’ve brought my umbrella because it's raining.
- You don't need an umbrella unless it's raining.
- I’ve brought my umbrella even though it's not raining.
- I’ve brought my umbrella so that I don't get wet.
- I’ve brought my umbrella in case it rains.
- 主句和从句的主语一致, 或从句主语是it
- 从句谓语中含有be动词的情况下, 我们可将从句的主语和be动词省去. 这种省略常见于时间, 地点, 条件及让步状语从句中
一般来说, 应同时满足以上两点
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时间状语从句的省略
Metals expand when (they are) heated and contract when (they are) cooled.
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地点状语从句的省略
The kind of tree grows favorably where (it is) wet.
Where (it is) appropriate, introduce personal experiences that will have common link with your audiece.
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条件状语从句的省略
A tiger can't be tamped unless (it is) caught very yong. 老虎只有在年幼时捉来才能被驯服
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让步状语从句的省略
Although (he is) not an economist himslef, Dr. Smith has long been a servera critic of the govenment's economic policies.
时间状语从句就是用来说明主句动作与从句动作发生时间上的先后关系. 既然说到动作发生的时间, 就必然与主句和从句的谓语的时态关系密切, 而英文中的时态又与动作持续时间的长短, 即延续动词 (continuous verb) 或短暂动词(transitory verb)有关. 因此, 在学习时间状语从句时, 建议读者牢牢把握下列贯穿所有时间状语从句的两个核心要点:
- 注意主句, 从句的时态搭配关系. 对于不同时间状语从句的连接词, 这种搭配关系是不同的
- 注意主句, 从句的谓语动词的延续性和短暂性. 延续动词所表示的动作, 下文简称为"长动作 (long action) ", 短暂动词所表示的动作, 简称为"短动作 (short action)"
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when引导从句表示过去动作的五组时态搭配:
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主语一般过去时 + 从句一般过去时
从句动作先发生
I started my dinner when he left.
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主句一般过去时 + 从句过去完成时
强调从句动作先发生
I started my dinner when he had left.
when引导的从句用一般过去时或过去完成时是有区别的. 具体来说, 在表示两个相继发生的动作时
- 用过去完成时, 可以表示在一个动作完成以后, 另一个动作才开始发生, 从而使得两个动作相互独立, 彼此脱离开来
- 用一般过去时, 则可能表示一个动作"导致"另一个动作的发生, 或两个动作之间有一种因果关系
1 When I had written my letters I did some gardening.
When I wrote him a letter, he came at once.
句1) 不宜说成When I wrote..., 因为这里的had written是持续了一段时间的, 这从宾语my letters可以看出来, 也就是说等一系列"写"的动作完成之后, 才有主句动作发生. 在句2) 中, 用wrote比had written更自然, 因为"我写信"和"他过来"有一种因果关系
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主句过去完成时 + 从句一般过去时
强调主句动作先发生
I had started my dinner when he left. 他走的时候, 我已经开始吃晚饭了
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主句一般过去时 + 从句过去进行时
短暂性动作用一般过去时, 延续性动作用过去进行时. 这一时态搭配使用所表示的意义是: 在一个延续背景动作进行的过程中突然发生了一个短暂动作
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主句过去进行时 + 从句一般过去时
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when引导从句表示一般现在动作的时态搭配:
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主句一般现在时 + 从句一般现在时
表示一般动作的when引导的从句往往是说明一般情况, 阐明一个道理, 因而常出现在名言警句, 谚语或格言中
When you were born, you cried and the world rejoiced. Live your life so that when you die, the world cries and you rejoice.
When my attitudes are right, there is no barrier too high, no valley too deep, no dream too extream, no challenge too great for me
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whenever 引导的时间状语从句
whenever引导时间状语从句, 表示"无论何时", 它相当于when的强调形式:
Whenever you say "I love you", mean it. Whenever you say "I’m sorry", look the person right in the eyes
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when引导从句表示将来的四组时态搭配:
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主语一般将来时 + 从句一般现在时
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主句一般将来时 + 从句现在完成时
从句中用完成时态是为了强调: 在从句动作结束了之后, 主句动作才开始发生. 此时从句的动作一般都是需要持续一段时间的
I'll go when I have had my dinner. 我吃饭完就去
I'll go when I have my dinner. 我吃着饭的同时就出去了
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主句将来完成时 + 从句一般现在时
表示主句动作先发生, 则主句要用将来完成时
The performer will already have played the music when we get there. 我们到的时候, 那个演奏家一定已经弹完那首曲子
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主句将来进行时 + 从句一般现在时
The performer will be playing the music when we get there. 我们到的时候, 那位演奏家一定正在弹奏那首曲子
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当while用作时间连词时, 意思相当于during that time (在...期间), 表示某一时间段内发生的动作, 因此, 从句谓语动词通常接延续动词
时间连词while和when的含义有差别, while的意思相当于during that time (在...期间), 表示某一时间段内发生的动作, 因此, 从句的谓语动词通常接延续动词. when的意思相当于at that time (在...时刻), 从句谓语动词通常是短暂动词, 表示某一时刻的动作 (从句也可接延续动词, 这时从句往往用过去进行时态)
当as引导时间从句时, 它相当于while, 即后面要接延延续动词, 一般译成"正当...", "随着..."或"一边...一边...". 与as引导的从句搭配的主句的谓语可以是延续动词, 也可以是短暂动词
The arrow fell into the river as the boat was drifting on the water.
Urban Japanese have long endured lengthy commutes (travels to and from work) and crowded living conditions, but as the old group and family values weaken, the discomfort is beginning to tell
连词before引导时间从句时, 同when一样, 主从句也会有各种时态搭配关系, 其中比较常见的一种是主句用过去完成时, 从句用一般过去时
The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse languages could be.
The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root. 只有...才...
It took a few months of investigation before it became clear. 在多长时间之后才.... 经过了几个月的调查之后, 情况才开始变得明朗
它的主从句时态搭配关系也有各种情况, 其中一种是与before相反, 主句用一般过去时, 从句用过去完成时
I moved to America after I had learned English for ten years.
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现在完成时态 + since + 短暂动词的一般过去时
I have worked in this company since I graduated. 自从我毕业, 就一直在这家公司上班
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现在完成时态 + since + 延续动词的一般过去时
若since后面的延续动词用一般过去时态, 则表示从句动作"结束"以来, 主句活动还在持续
He hasn't contacted me since I worked in that company. 自从我离开那家公司后, 他就再没有和我联系过
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现在完成时态 + since + 延续动词的现在完成时
He hasn't contacted me since I have worked in that company. 自从我开始在那家公司工作后, 他就再没有和我联系过
since引导的从句的动词与时态的关系如下:
- 接短暂动词, 常用一般过去时态 did, 翻译时按英文字面意思理解即可. 这是since最常见的用法
- 接延续动词, 此时分两种情况:
- 用一般过去时态 did, 表示从句动作已经结束, 翻译时不能按照英文字面意思理解
- 是用现在完成时态 have done, 表示从句动作开始延续, 翻译时可按照英文字面意思理解
- 从句动作也可用完成进行时态 have been doing, 此时动词的延续性或短暂性不限
How long is it since you were a teacher? 你不当老师有多久了?
How long is it since you have been a teacher? 你当老师有多久了?
He has written to me frequently since I was ill. 我病好以来, 他常常给我写信
He has written to me frequently since I have been ill. 自从我生病以来, 他常常给我写信
It’s been three years since I had a holiday. 三年来我都没有休过假
三个有关until用法的要点:
- 既可以作为介词也可以作为连词, 所以until后面可以接名词短语也可以接时间从句
- until的本质是表示"一个动作(主句动作)一直持续到某一个时间点(point of time)". 具体来说就是: until前面的主句或句子谓语必须是延续性的, 而until后面接的从句的谓语须是短暂动词或接时间点
- 由上面第2点, 我们可以推导出until的句型结构有:
-
延续动词 + until+ 时间点/短暂动词
Wait until he comes back.
We'll stay here until it stops raining.
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短暂性动词 + until+ 从句的短暂动词
若主句或句子谓语动词是短暂动词, 则要用否定形式, 因为否定之后表示的是一个状态, 而状态是延续的, 这就是我们常说的"not...until (直到...才...) "的结构
I will be away from office until next Tuesday.
I did not realize how special my monther was until I became an adult.
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not...until的四种不同句式:
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正常结构
The little boy didn't smile unitl he saw his mother.
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util 置于句首
Util he saw his mother, the little boy didn't smile.
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倒装结构
只需要把否定词not提到句首, 置于until前面, 于是便有了not until..., 谓语助动词 + 主语 + 谓语动词的结构. 也就是说, 此时主句要采用部分倒装结构, 即将主句谓语的助动词提到主语前面, 谓语动词仍放在主语后面
Not util he saw his mother did the little boy smile.
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强调结构
It was not until + 时间从句或短语 + that + 主句部分
It was not util he saw his mother that the little boy smiled.
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从句动作先于主句动作
确切地说, 就是在从句动作发生之后, 主句动作紧接着就发生了. 表示这一时间关系的连词有: as soon as, once, the minute, the moment, the instant, immediately, directly, instantly等. 这些连词的用法和句式结构是一样的, 主从句时态一般一致
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若表示将来的动作, 则主句用一般将来时, 从句用一般现在时
We will leave as soon as it stops raining.
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若表示过去的动作, 则主句和从句都用一般过去时
It began to rain as soon as I arrived home.
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-
主句动作先于从句动作
确切地说, 就是在主句动作发生之后, 从句动作紧接着就发生了. 表示这一时间关系的连词有: hardly/scarcely...when, no sooner...than. 需要提醒注意的是, 这些连词的用法和句式结构是不一样的, 主从句时态一般也不一致. 它们一般多用来表示过去的动作, 此时, 主句多用过去完成时, 且常倒装, 从句用一般过去时, 它可与as soon as等从句, 主句互换
No sooner had I arrived home than it begann to rain.
It began to rainn as soon as I arrived home.
确切来说, by the time是一个介词短语, 但起着连词的作用, 其后可以直接加一个从句, 它的意思是"在...之前", 强调的是"一个动作在另外一个动作发生之前已经完成 (one event is completed before another event) ". 因此, 与by the time搭配的主句要用完成时态
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表示过去的动作: 主句用 had done + by the time + 从句用 did
We had already left by the time they arrived.
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表示将来的动作: 主句用 will have done + by the time + 从句用 do
We will have already left by the time they arrive.
next time, every time, each time, the day, the week
Next time you come, remember to bring along your sister.
Every time I listen to your advice, I get into trouble.
地点状语从句通常是由where引导, 用来表达主句的动作发生的场所, 其结构通常是where+陈述句, 从句可以在句首或句末
Stay where you are.
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Where there is a Love, there is Wealth and Success.
我们常用because, for, as, since这四个连词来引导原因状语从句. 他们的意义和用法不完全相同
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because 的语气最强, 只有它才能用来回答why的问句, 所引出的原因往往是听话人所不知道的或最感兴趣的; 也只有because才能被强调词如only, just和perhaps等来修饰
Perhaps because most of today's cross-cultural marriages occur because of "true love", these couples work hard to overcome their difference.
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连词since表示人们已知的事实或不需强调的原因, 所以常译成"既然", 通常放在句首
Since you are an English major, I guess you can help me with this sentence.
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连词as与since的用法差不多, 所引出的理由在说话人看来已经很明显, 或已为听话人所熟悉而不需用because加以强调
As Monday is a national holiday, all government offices will be closed.
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连词for表示推断的理由, 是对前面分句的内容加以解释或说明
It rained last night, for the ground is wet this morning.
在这四个连词中:
- as和for引导的主从句, 二者处于平等位置
- because引导的从句显得比主句重要, 强调原因
- since引导的从句显得次要, 而主句重要, 以说明将要做什么事
because of, due to, owing to 因为是介词, 所以它们的后面只能接名词而不是从句
We had an accident because he was careless.
We had an accident due to his carelessness.
Owing to his carelessness we had an accident
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in that 原因就在于
E-mail is different from the traditional mail in that it sends and receives mails in a second.
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seeing/now/considering/given (that) 鉴于某个事实, 考虑到
Given that they are inexperienced, they've done a good job.
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not that...but that 不是因为...而是因为...
I haven't finished writing the report yet, not that I'm lazy, but that I have ont time.
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inasmuch as, insomuch as, in so/as much as
Inasmuch as the two govenment leaders could not reach an agreement, the possibilities for peace are still remote.
在主句是否定的情况下, because引导的从句的翻译可分为三种情形:
- 只能按正常情况翻译
- 两种翻译都可以, 具体如何理解要看上下文
- 只能按否定转移来翻译
You don't love a woman because she is beautiful, but she is beautiful because you love her.
你不是因为一个女人的美貌才爱她, 而是因为你爱她才觉得她美
I don't study English just because it is so difficult. 我不学英文, 因为它太难了
I don't study English just because I like to. 我学英文并不是因为我喜欢英文(而是因为其他原因, 比如工作需要)
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常见连词的用法
so that, in order that, that. 另外, 在目的状语从句中常含有情态动词, 比如may/might或can/could
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目的状语从句的简化
对于目的状语从句, 我们可以用不定式来将其结构简化. 上面我们讨论了由三个连词引导的目的状语从句, 即in order that, so that, that, 那么对应的不定式结构同样有三种, 即in order to do, so as to do和to do
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in order to/so as to + do
in order to可以放在句末, 也可以放在句首, 但so as to不能置于句首
All the key words in the article are printed in bold type so as to attract readers’ attention.
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直接用不定式表目的
To avoid critism, do nothing, say nothing, be nothing
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in order for sb. + to do sth
I spoke slowly and clearly in order for the audience to understand me.
-
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其他连词的用法
lest(以免, 以防), for fear that(生怕), in case(万一)也可引导目的状语从句. 从句的谓语动词一般用情态动词should, 且should常常被省去
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so that
so that引导目的状语从句与结果状语从句的区别主要有两点:
- 若so that引导结果状语从句, 往往会有逗号将主句与从句隔开
- 在结果状语从句中往往没有情态动词, 而目的状语从句通常都含有情态动词
The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them.
We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called.
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so + 形容词/副词/分词 + that
We are so accustomed to adopting a mask before others that we end by being unable to recognize ourselves.
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so + 形容词 + a + 可数名词单数 + that
This is so expensive a house that I can't afford to buy it.
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so many/much/few/little + 名词 + that
The neighbors were making so much nose last night that I didn't sleep a wink.
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such that
在such that引导的结果状语从句中, such就相当于so+形容词, 具体用什么形容词则要根据上下文来判断
His anger was such that he lost contorl of himself.
His anger was so explosive that he lost contorl of himself.
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such + 可数/不可数名词 + that
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限定词 + such + 名词
虽然我们一般不说such many, such much或such few, 但我们可以说many such dogs, much such attention, few such cars. 能够这样用的原因是: 首先由such修饰名词, 比如: such cars; 然后再由这些表示数量的形容词修饰such, 于是便有了many such cars. 其他可用在such前面的限定词有: no, other, some, any, one (two, three... )
The Ministers used "splendid", "magnificent" and other such expressions to describe the King's new clothes.
| 结果状语从句 | 不定式简化 |
|---|---|
| so...that | so...as to do |
| such...that | such...as to do |
| such that | such as to do |
He was so foolish as to believe him.
Her voice was such as to make everyone stare.
such/so...that引导结果状语从句, 为了强调, 还可以将主句中的so或such引导的部分置于句首, 从而构成倒装结构
So fast does the light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed.
Such a fool was he that he believed her.
to the degree/extent (that), to such a degree/extent (that). 当它们位于句首表示强调时, 主句同样需要倒装
He went on with empty speech to such an extent that some of us began to doze.
To such an extent did he go on with his empty speech that some of us began to doze.
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常见连词的用法
最常见的条件状语从句的引导词是 if 和 unless. 连词if表示"如果", unless表示"如果不"或"除非"
Giving someone all your love is never an assurance that they’ll love you back. Don't expect love in return, just wait for it to grow in their heart; but if it doesn't, be glad it grew in yours.
为某人付出自己全部的爱, 并不一定能够保证对方会同样爱你. 不要期望爱的回报, 就让爱在对方心中慢慢滋长. 即使没有, 也不要失望, 而要为自己心中曾经爱过而感到高兴
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only if与if only
only if表示"只有", 而if only表示"只要"
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must/have to do...if...be to do
如果...必须..., 那么就不得不
The first two must be equal for all who are being compared, if any comparison in terms of intelligence is to be made.
如果一定要从智力方面进行任何比较的话, 那么对所有的被比较者来说, 前两个因素必须是一样的
But if robots are to reach the next stage of laborsaving utility, they will have to operate with less human supervision and be able to make at least a few decisions for themselves-goals that pose a real challenge.
但是如果一定要机器人进一步节省劳力的话, 它们必须能够在更少的人工监控下工作, 并且至少能够独立地做一些决定--这些目标向我们提出了真正的挑战
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其他条件从句的连词
suppose/supposing/provided/providing (that), so/as long as, on condition that
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其他表示条件意味的句型
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祈使句/省略句 + and = if从句 + 主句
Spare the rod and spoil the child
- If you spare the rod, you'll spoil the child.
Give us 20 minutes and we will give you 10 years back.
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祈使句/省略句 + or/or else = unless从句 + 主句
Give it back to me or (else) I'll tell your parents
- Unless you give it back to me, I'll tell your parents.
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在复合句中, 给主句让步, 一般翻译为"尽管, 即使"等退一步讲的意思的从句是让步状语从句
常见的引导让步状语从句的连词有: though, although, even though, even if. 此时, 主句前不可用but, 但可用yet/still
这些介词主要有despite, in spite of, for all, notwithstanding
表示让步关系的 介词 + (名词, 名词短语, 动名词, what从句)
表示让步关系的 连词 + (完整的陈述句, 形容词(相当于省略句), 分词(相当于省略句) )
Though tired, he would't stop working.
- Though he was tired, he wouldn't stop working.
- no matter+what, who, when, where, which, how
- whatever, whoever, whenever, wherever, whichever, however
- 来引导让步状语从句, 表示"无论". 请注意, 这几个连词除了however外, 一般都是单独使用, 而however后面通常要接形容词或副词, 不单独使用
But however amazed our descendants may be at how far from Utopia we were, they will look just like us.
- Our descendants may be amazed at how far from Utopia we were...
- 但是不管我们的后代对我们离乌托邦之遥远感到多么吃惊, 他们的长相将和我们一样
(形容词, 副词, 分词, 名词, 短语) + as + 主语 + 谓语
Oldest in our workshop as he is, he works hardest.
Much as I respect him, I cannot agree with him.
Try as he will, no man breaks wholly loose from his first love, no matter who she be...
As much as John hates to do it, he must stay at home and study tonight.
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be 引导的倒装句如果表达的是两种或以上的情况, 此时be引导的倒装句可改写成由whether引导的让步状语从句, 比如由be they gaseous, liquid or solid改写成whether they may be gaseous, liquid or solid
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be引导的倒装句如果只表达一种情况, 此时be引导的倒装句可改写成由however引导的让步状语从句, 比如由be it ever so humble改写成however humble it may be
All substances, be they gaseous, liquid or solid, are made up of atoms.
As we grow up, we form our own identities because we are individuals, so it feels unfair to have our identities compared with others’, be it our peers, siblings or parents.
- 这个句子原本的结构是"...whether it may be our peers, siblings or parents.", 相当于whether引导的让步状语从句, 译成"不论...还是". 把whether省去后, 将动词be提到句首
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as + 形容词/副词 + as
-
as + 形容词 + 可数名词单数 + as
Rarely has a technological development had as great an impact on so many aspects of social, economic, and cultural development as the growth of electronics.
-
在否定句中第一个as可用so代替
No other modern nation devotes so small a portion of its wealth to public health as/so the United States does.
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为了保持句子平衡, 从句还可以用倒装结构: as...as + 助动词 + 主语
Small as it is, the ant is as much a creature as are all other animals on the earth.
The "failed"experiments are as much a part of the process as the experiment that ultimately "works
- 那些失败了的实验, 与最终成功了的实验一样, 都是整个实验过程的组成部分 (二者同样重要 )
这个句型的用法特点如下:
- 从结构上来看, not...so much as 可以有两种结构: not A so much as B或者not so much A as B
- 从意思上来看, 该句型的基本含义为: "与其说A倒不如说B", 或者"是B, 而不是A". 但在实际的翻译中非常灵活
- A和B是两个被比较的平行结构, 如: 同为介词短语, 动词不定式, 名词短语或其他平行结构
Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.
The trumpet player was certainly loud, but I was not bothered by his loudness so much as by his lack of talent.
The great thing in this world is not so much where we stand as in what direction we are moving.
We both agreed that our marriage had taken a marked decline in the romance department. And it wasn't a lack of sex that concerned us so much as the lack of conversation
这一句型表示类比. 具体用法如下:
- 基本意思是"正如..., 所以"
- 第二句可用倒装结构
Just as virtue is its own reward, so is vice its own punishment. 善有善报, 恶有恶报
Just as dark clouds cannot long hide the sun, so no lies can cover up the fact.
Just as food nourishes the body, so do books enrich the mind.
As you sow, so will you reap/so you will reap.
为了保持句子平衡, 从句还可以用全部或部分倒装, 此时的结构是: than + 助动词 + 主语
On the whole, ambitious students are more likely to succeed in their studies than are those with little ambition
In China the South generally receives much less snow than does the North.
这个句型的用法特点如下:
-
从结构上来看, no more...than有个变体形式not...any more than
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从功能上来看, 这个句型表示的往往是两个事物之间的类比关系, 是用than后面从句中的事物来作比, 以阐明than前面的主句所要表达的观点
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从意思上来看, 这个结构的基本意思是"同...一样不". 既然是类比关系, 翻译时我们就要表达出来, 可以有两种选择:
- 先译主句后译than引导的从句, 即"...不能..., 就如同 (than引导的从句 )...不能...一样
- 或者先译than引导的从句后译主句, 即"正如 (than从句 )...不能..., 所以...同样不能..."
-
特别要注意的是, than后面的句子为肯定形式, 但要译成否定的意思
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code, which governs his activity, any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business 但是, 他的首要任务并不是考虑支配自己行为的道德问题, 就如同不能指望商人专注于探讨其行业规范一样
There is no reason they should limit how much vitamin you take, any more than they can limit how much water you drink. 正如他们没有理由限制你每天喝多少水一样, 他们也绝没有理由限制你维生素
The heart is no more than intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain.
- 倍数 + 比较级 + than: A is three times bigger (或其他形容词的比较级) than B
- 倍数 + as...as: A is three times as big (或其他形容词的原级) as B
- 倍数 + 名词: A is three times the size (或其他形容词对应的名词形式) of B
这个句型的三个用法要点:
- 正确使用该句型的核心: 比较级部分都须在各自引导的分句中充当一定的成分
- 从结构上来看, 这个句型的前半部分是从句, 后半部分是主句, 即"the+比较级 (从句 ), the+比较级 (主句 )", 这就是为什么前半句常用一般现在时态, 而后半句常用一般将来时态, 类似于其他状语从句的"主句用将来时, 从句用一般现在时"的规则一样
- 翻译成汉语时, 一般是按前后正常的语序, 先译从句, 后译主句
The more exactly you use your words, the more easily people will understand you.
- The more exact your words are, the easier it is for people to understand you.
- The more exact words you use, the more easily people will understand you.
- ❌ The more exact you use your words, the easier people will understand you.
The people is to people's army what/as water is to fish.
what/as C to D, so is A to B (so A is to B)
- As water to finiss, so the peolple is to peolple's army.
- What Newton was to machanics and Darwinn to biology, Freud was to psychology.
引导词有 as, like, as if, as though, the way
When in Remo, do as the Romans do.
He looks as though/if he is an actor.
Work like you don't need the money.
as 引导的方式状语从句:
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as 引导方式状语从句
在英文中, as引导的方式状语从句是用来修饰句子的谓语部分的
Darwin had a phrase to describe those ignorant of evolution: they "look at an organic being as a savage looks at a ship, as at something wholly beyond his comprehension
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as 引动的方式状语从句可倒装: as + 助动词 + 主语
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用于否定结构
-
as前面的句子是否定的, as所在的句子本身是肯定的
Far from advocating a withdrawal from American culture, as did some of his contemporaries, he recommended a cultural pluralism through which artists could enrich the culture of America.
- 他并没有像同时代的人那样提倡与美国文化完全分离, 而是主张一种文化多元主义, 艺术家们借此可以丰富美国文化
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as前面的句子是肯定的, as所在的句子本身是否定的
She described the scene as no other people described it.f
He could love the child as he did not love Charles.
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限定动词(英语: finite verb)是一种动词的形式, 与句子中主语的人称, 数等的一致, 并体现在时态上. 限定动词与非限定动词(不定式, 分词, 动名词等)的区别在于, 非限定动词不需要与主语的人称, 数等语法范畴一致
非限定动词(nonfinite verb)是动词的一种派生形式, 在独立子句中不能体现动作, 不受人称, 数等限制, 与限定动词相对. 非限定动词因不做谓语的动词, 故又称为非谓语动词. 英语中的非限定动词有:
- 动词不定式 (to do ), 动名词 (doing), 两种分词(现在分词doing和过去分词done)
非限定动词通常没有文法时态的变化, 但可能有些小的语法特征变化. 从形式上来看, 非限定动词很少有三种语法特征变化, 包括: 语气, 时态和语态, 并且相对, 独立或关联于谓语. 一般来说也很少有对于主词的依赖. 在限定子句中, 一个或多个非限定动词可能关联于限定动词, 并成为动词链(verb catena, verb chain)的元素之一
语气(modus, 英语: mood, mode), 是指通过一定的语法形式说明动作或过程的进行方式, 也就是说话者对行为或动作的态度. 一般有:
- 陈述语气, 祈使语气, 虚拟语气, 条件语气
语态(genus verbi, 英语: voice)是在语法学中描述句子中动词和参与此动作之主语之间关系的一个术语
- 主动语态: 主语是动作的发起者(或之一)
- 被动语态: 主语为动作之承受者
| 非谓语动词 | 在句中充当的成分 |
|---|---|
| 不定式 | 不定式, 即不一定是什么词性的成分, 可当作名词, 形容词和副词来使用. 因此不定式在句中能够充当除谓语之外的其他任何成分 |
| 动名词 | 动名词相当于名词, 因此在句中主要充当主语, 宾语, 表语和定语 |
| 分词 | 分词相当于形容词和副间, 因此在句中主要充当当定语, 状语, 补足语和表语 |
- 从上表可知, 关于非谓语动词有三个重点内容: 充当句子成分, 时态和语态的变化以及逻辑主语
- 非谓语动词作句中成分是它们非动词特征的体现, 这是学习的重点
- 非谓语动词作为动词的一种变化形式, 仍保留有动词的特征, 比如有自己的主语, 有时态和语态的变化
-
不定式放在句首作主语
不定式作主语时的位置比较特殊--通常要放在句末, 而不放在句首. 只有在一些比较特殊的情况下才直接把不定式放在句首作主语, 这种情况往往是有两个不定式构成对比关系
To err is human; to forgive, divine.
To love for the sake of being loved is human, but to love for the sake of loving is angelic.
-
不定式放在句末作主语
-
It is + 形容词 + to do 结构
It is impossible for us to master English in a short time.
To master English in a short time is impossible for us.
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其他结构 It + to do
It takes time and effort to master English.
It is my duty to help you with your English.
-
思维差异
It is impossible for us to master English in a short time.
在汉语中说"我们不可能在很短的时间内就掌握英语", 是"我们"作主语. 但在英语中其实是for us to master English in a short time这个不定式短语所表达的"我们在很短的时间内就掌握英语"这样一件事情作主语, 表示这件事"是不可能的 (is impossible)
-
-
结构一: 动词 + to do
不定式可以直接跟在一个及物动词后面作宾语, 这时句子有以下两个特点:
- 句子的主语和不定式的逻辑主语是一致的, 即两个动词所表示的动作都是由全句主语发出的
- 这时句子的谓语动词多是描写态度, 不定式的动词则说明行为
I hope to see you again.
He promised not to tell anyone about it.
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结构二: 动词 + 疑问词 + to do
在一些动词之后, 可以在连接代词 (what, who, which)或连接副词 (how, when, where)及连词whether后面接一个带to的不定式, 我们可以将这种结构看成是连词引导的宾语从句的简略形式. 事实上, 这些连词都是由相应的疑问词转化而来的, 其中whether对应于一般疑问句
I wonder who to invite = who should I invite.
I don't know whether to answer his letter.
Show us what to do = (what we must do)
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结构三: 动词 + it + 宾语补足语 + to do
在动词 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语的结构中, 当宾语被后置, 即变成动词 + 宾语补足语 + 宾语这样的结构时, 在动词后面是否需要形式宾语it, 取决于宾语的构成形式
- 如果宾语是动词不定式, that引导的从句, 则需要形式宾语it
- 如果宾语是名词短语, what引导的从句, 则不需要形式宾语it
I think it hard to answer the qustion in one go.
He feels it chanllenging to be a marketing supervisor.
The computer makes possible (a marvelous leap in human proficiency 名词短语)
They want to make it clear to the public that they do an important and necessary job.
不定式作宾语补足语, 通常只放在某些特定的谓语动词后边, 其基本结构是谓语动词 + 宾语 + to do
能用于此结构中的动词有 (具体词义和用法请查词典): advice, allow, ask, beg, believe, cause, command, challenge, compel, declare, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, hate, have, help, instruct, intend, invite, judge, leave, let, like, mean, make, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prefer, press, recommend, request, remind, teach, tell, tempt, trouble, want, warn, wish (hope不可), urge等
另外, 在let, make, have, see, hear, feel, watch, notice, listen to等动词 (短语)后面的不定式作宾语补足语的句子中, to要省略
Allow me to propose a toast to our friendship.
The chairman declared the meeting to be over.
They dont' allow people to smoke in the theater.
In hot, dry regions, the sun's heat causes the outer layter of rocks to expand and peel away, process called exfoliation.
对于作定语的不定式, 关键是要搞清楚它与其前面先行词之间的逻辑语义关系, 这样才能正确地理解和翻译句子
He is the best man to choose. 歧义, man和to choose逻辑关系不清楚
- He is the best man to make the choose 主谓关系: 由他来做选择是最好的
- He is the best man to choose by us 动宾关系: 他是最佳人选
所谓主语关系, 就是指先行词在逻辑意义上充当不定式中动词的主语
在这种具有主语关系的不定式结构中, 先行词前面还通常会有only, last, next, 序数词, 最高级形容词等修饰成分
The man to help you is Mr. Johnson.
- The man who help you is Mr. Johnson.
先行词在逻辑意义上充当不定式的宾语. 若进一步细分, 又可分为下面两种情况:
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作不定式中的动词的宾语
I have a letter to write.
I give the kid a comic to read.
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作不定式中的介词的宾语
I have a pen to write with.
I have a paper to write on.
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介词搭配与动词
She has four children to take care of.
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介词搭配先行词
Why don't you get a backpack to carry your books in?
If I were abroad, I’d travel around the country as much as I could and try to find as many people as possible, not only to practice the language on but to have discussions with, and I’d hope to make some real friends.
- 并列谓语 1: travel around the country as much as I could
- 并列谓语 2:
- 中心词 people: and try to find as many people as possible,
- 并列谓语 1: not only to practice the language on
- 并列谓语 2: but to have discussions with
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所谓补语关系, 就是指先行词在逻辑意义上充当不定式中动词的逻辑主语的补语
The thing (for you) to be these days is a gold-collar.
- 整个句子可以改写成: The thing that you should try to be these days is a gold-collar. 这里被修饰的名词thing在be后面作表语, 但实际上是补充说明句子主语you的, 即补足语
所谓同位语关系, 就是指不定式短语的内容是对先行词作进一步补充说明, 因此名词与不定式短语之间构成同位说明的关系
不是所有的名词与不定式连用都能够表示同位语关系, 这样的名词一般仅限于两类:
-
与动词相关的名词
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与形容词相关的名词
指那些要求与不定式连用的动词, 因而它们的名词形式也要接不定式. 常见的这样的名词有: arrangement, attempt, claim, decision, hope, determination, failure, need, plan, promise, refusal, resolution, tendency, threat, wish
He refused to co-operate with us.
- His refusal to co-operate makes us angry.
I don't wish to change.
- I have no wish to change.
She was reluctant to accept his invitation.
- Her reluctance to accept his invitation upset him.
所谓状语关系, 就是指先行词在逻辑意义上充当不定式中动词的状语, 比如可以表示不定式动作的方式, 时间或地点等, 即分别构成:
-
时间状语, 先行词表示时间
The time to go is July
- The time at which you should go is July.
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地点状语, 先行词表示地点
A good place to eat is the Sichuan restaurant around the corner.
- A good place at which you can eat is the Sichuan restaurant around the corner.
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方式状语, 先行词往往是way
Role playing is a safe and enjoyable way to learn English.
There are two basic ways to see growth: one as a product, the other as a process.
In this process, the journey never really ends; there are always new ways to experience the world, new ideas to try, new challenges to accept
- 这里有三个并列的不定式短语: new ways to experience the world, new ideas to try和new challenges to accept, 但是名词与不定式之间的逻辑语义关系是不同的. 第一个是状语关系, 相当于说to experience the world in the new ways; 后两个是宾语关系, 相当于说to try new ideas和to accept new challenges
表示产生某种感情的原因. 这种用法的不定式不多见, 在此不过多阐述, 仅举几例予以说明
They laughed to see the clown. = They laughed as they saw the clown.
I was delighted to meet him. = I was delighted as I met him.
由于目的状语算是不定式作状语的"头牌", 因此当我们用不定式作状语表示其他意义时, 一般都要附加一些限制条件, 以免抢了目的状语的"风头". 所以, 读者将会看到, 不定式作其他状语都仅限于一些特定的结构中, 以避免与目的状语混淆
在很特殊的情况下, 不定式to do可以直接用在句中作结果状语
- He lived to see the Second World War.
虽然有上面这些直接用to do表示结果的例子, 但作结果状语的不定式往往要用在一些固定的句型中:
-
only to do
我们常用only to do引出意想不到的或不愉快的结果, 表示说话人并不希望它发生. 因此, 这个结构具有消极的含义
We hurried to the railway station, only to find the train had just left. 我们匆匆忙忙赶到火车站, 结果却发现火车刚刚出站
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so...as to do/such as to do
上面提到so as to do可以作目的状语, 但分开写的so...as to do却是表示结果的. 这里so的后面常接一个形容词. 注意不要漏掉as
Her story is so sad as to arouse our sympathy.
Her story is such as to arouse our sympath.
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...enough to do
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too...to do
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肯定形式, 否定意思: "太...而不能", 即"肯定形式, 否定意思
If those china dishes did fall they are too light to hurt my feet.
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肯定形式, 肯定意思
在too的后面接一些特殊的形容词时, 如ready(乐意的), anxious(热心的, 急切的), eager(热切的)和willing(愿意的), 此时这个句型表示肯定的意思, 相当于说"非常想", "急于", "时刻准备
-
I'm just too eager to help you.
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You are too ready to find faults with other peolple.
当too的前面有only, all, but, really修饰时, 这个结构亦表示肯定意思
- He would be only too glad to be her boyfriend, but he knew he couldn't match her in family status.
-
-
否定句
还有两种否定形式:
- 在too前面否定, 如not too...to do, 也即否定句子的谓语
- 在to前面否定, 如too...not to do, 也即否定不定式结构. 但这两种否定结构的意思不一样: 前者表示"不很...所以能够"; 后者表示"很...所以不会不
We are never too old to learn.
He is too smart not to see your point.
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我们可以把to do结构放在句末, 来表示句中某个动作的目的, 即为目的状语
- Hating people is like burning down your own house to get rid of a rat.
若要强调目的状语, 我们可以把to do提置句首
- To avoid criticism, do nothing, say nothing, be nothing.
我们可用in order to do或so as to do来强调目的状语
- I quote others in order better to express my own self.
作目的状语的不定式, 其逻辑主语往往需要与句子的主语一致
- To acquire knowledge, one must study; but to acquire wisdom, one must observe.
当不定式表示条件时, 句子的谓语通常含有助动词, 如: will, would, shall, should, must, can, could等, 因为此时不定式短语前面的句子相当于一个主句, 而不定式短语相当于一个条件状语从句
The father will be proud for his son to win the gold medal.
- The father will be proud if his son wins the gold medal.
He is easy to fool. 骗他很容易
- To fool him is easy.
He is afraied to be fooled. 他害怕被骗
对于"形容词+ to do"这样的结构, 关键是要搞清楚不定式的逻辑语义关系, 但是我并没有说要搞清楚不定式与谁的逻辑关系. 在上一节讨论的"名词+ to do"的结构中, 我们是要搞清楚"名词"与to do之间的关系. 也许有读者据此认为, 在这一节里我们是要搞清楚"形容词"与to do之间的关系. 其实不是. 这里是要搞清楚句子主语与to do之间的关系
He is interesting to listen to. 别人听他讲话很有趣
- It's interesting to listen to him.
- To listen to him is interesting
The speaker who has no specific words in his working vocabulary may be <difficult, impossible, unalbe, improable> to explain or describe in a way that can be understood by his listeners.
- 在英语中, difficult, impossible和improbable都只能修饰"事情", 而不是"人"
该句型特点:
-
句子的表层结构与深层结构不统一
从句子的表层结构来看, 通常是"人"作主语(如He is easy to fool.)或"事物"作主语(English is difficult to speak.)但在句子的深层结构中, 是一个"事件"或"活动"充当真正意义上的主语(如To fool him is easy. 和To speak English is difficult.)从逻辑语义上来看, 句子的主语是充当不定式的逻辑宾语. 具体来说, 可以是充当不定式动词的宾语(如He is easy to fool.), 或者是充当不定式中的介词的宾语(如He is interesting to listen to.)
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句型可变换, 还原
特点1决定了这类句子可以由表层结构到深层结构进行句型变换, 但句义不变. 我们常用的句式变换, 是把作主语的不定式直接置于句首, 如To fool him is easy. 或者是用it作形式主语, 而把真正的主语(不定式)放在句末, 如It is easy to fool him.
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形容词特点
这个句型中的形容词侧重于强调"事情"或"活动"(event or activity)的性质特征, 而不是强调"人"(person)的性质特征. 具体来说, 这个句型中的形容词, 有的是无法修饰"人"的; 有的可以修饰人, 但单独使用的形容词的含义与带不定式的形容词的含义会有差别(如difficult)
-
动词特点
-
是及物动词且不带宾语. 因为, 此时句子的主语要充当不定式动词的逻辑宾语, 因此不定式动词一定是个及物动词, 且其后没有带宾语
-
若是不及物动词, 则须添加适当的介词(如listen to)
在使用这个句型时注意以下三点:
-
不定式动词一般不用被动态(最容易出错)
-
不定式后不能再加宾语
表面上, 不定式中的动词或介词缺少了宾语, 但实际上句子的主语充当了不定式的逻辑宾语, 故不能再添加宾语
-
有时需要在不定式中添加适当的介词
这是针对不及物动词来说的. 因为此时若没有介词, 句子的主语就被架空了, 无法回到句末作宾语. 比如不能说:
She is interesting to listen to.
She is easy to get on.
宾语关系(一) 宾语关系(二)的区别:
-
结构上的不同: 不能进行句式变换
尽管"宾语关系(一)"和"宾语关系(二)"具有相同的深层结构: 句子的主语在不定式短语中充当动词的宾语或介词的宾语, 但是"宾语关系(二)"中的句子不可以进行句式变换
The book is interesting to buy.
- The book is so interesting that you can buy it.
- ❌ It's insteresting to buy the book.
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形容词的特点不同
在宾语关系(一)所示句型中的形容词主要是用来描述"事件(events)"的性质特点(有的也可以描述"事物"的性质特点), 而本节所示句型中的形容词只表示"事物(things)"的性质特点, 而不表示"事件(events)"的性质特点
1 The book is interesting to buy.
- The book is so interesting that you can buy it.
2 The book is interesting to read
- To read the book is interesting.
例句1)是说"书有趣", 不是说"买书有趣". 如果要改成To buy the book is interesting. 则表示"买书"这个行为本身很有趣, 而不是讲这本书有趣. 也就是说The book is interesting to buy. 和To buy the book is interesting. 这两句的意思是截然不同的. 我们可以这样改写句1): The book is interesting enough to buy. 或者The book is so interesting that you can buy it.
在例句2)中, The book is interesting to read. 和To read the book is interesting. 这两句的意思是相同的. 这个句子比较特殊, 因为interesting描述"书有趣(The book is interesting.)", 在意思上就相当于"看这本书有趣(To read the book is interesting.)", 因为书就是用来看的
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不定式是否可以省去
我们在宾语关系(一)中讨论的不定式短语一般不能省去, 或省去以后句子的意思会发生改变. 而这里的不定式短语可以省去而不改变句子的核心意思, 而且对于某些形容词, 往往还不需要带不定式
The food is ready to eat.
- The food is ready.
两者的区别主要在于形容词, 宾语关系(一)中的形容词主要是用来描述 event "事件"或"活动"的性质特征, 而宾语关系(二)中的形容词侧重描述 thing"事物"的性质特征, 由此导致了在句式变换以及不定式是否可以省去这两方面的差异. 因为, 当句式变换了或者不定式被省去了, 这都会引起"事件"与"事物"之间的差异, 从而会导致某个句子的可接受性问题
这一句型中的形容词通常是表示外界对主语的行为进行评价. 具体来说, 是表示人的性格特征或行为表现的形容词, 比如brave, careful, careless, considerate, cowardly, crazy, cruel, generous, good, greedy, kind, nice (=kind善良的), mad, mean (卑鄙的, 吝啬的), modest, rude, selfish, thoughtful, wrong等; 或者是表示人的智能方面的形容词, 如clever, foolish, idiotic, intelligent, sensible, wise, silly, stupid等
注意, 这类形容词与"宾语关系(一)"中的形容词的主要区别是: 前者强调"人"的特点, 后者强调"事情"的特点. 而且在用It is...to do句型来改写时, 要使用不同的介词--前者是"of+人", 后者用"for+人". 请比较:
It is kind of him to help us. 强调"人"的特点
It is easy for you to fool him. 强调"事情"的特点
改写:
- It is...of sb. to do sth
- so...as to do sth
- How...of sb. it is to do sth
He is kind to help us.
- It is kind of him to help us.
- He is so kind to help us.
- How kind of him (it is) to help us.
在上面这个例句中, he既是is glad的主语, 也是to help us的主语. 当然我们还可以通过for来单独引出不定式自己的逻辑主语, 以与句子的主语相区别. 请比较:
She's anxious to win the competition.
She's anxious for her daughter to win the competition.
比较它与"主语关系(一)"中的形容词有什么不同. 请比较:
- He is kind to help us. 形容词kind是别人对he的评价, 而并不是描述he本身的性质特征
- He is glad to help us. 形容词glad不是别人对he的评价, 而是主语he本身的性质特征, 或者说是he对to help us这件事情的态度或情感
I am sorry to hear it.
- I'm sorry to have kept you waiting = I'm sorry because I have kept you waiting.
I was excited to be there = To be there excited me.
从以上这些例句我们看出, 这里的形容词是表示情感的, 具体来说是表示人对某件事的态度或情感. 常常是过去分词转化来的形容词, 这与"宾语关系(一)"形成对比, 那里是现在分词. 这样的形容词有: afraid, angry, anxious, ashamed, content, curious, determined, desperate, eager, frightened, furious, glad, happy, impatient, indignant, jubilant(喜气洋洋的), keen, reluctant, thankful等; 过去分词有: annoyed, astonished, bored, concerned, delighted, depressed, disappointed, disgusted, dissatisfied, embarrassed, fascinated, frightened, interested, overjoyed, overwhelmed, perturbed, prepared, puzzled, relieved, reluctant, surprised, willing, unwilling, worried等
这些形容词是表示情感的, 而其后面的不定式短语表示产生这种情感的原因. 所以, 有语法家把这里的不定式看作是充当原因状语. 既然是相当于状语, 所以我们还可以把形容词变为副词来直接修饰动词
In Shanghai, East meets West. Back in the 1840s, China was reluctant to open its doors to foreigners. While foreigners weren't very welcome years ago, Shanghai is today eager to invite foreign investment.
- China reluctantly opened its doors to foreigners
- Shanghai today eagerly invites foreign investment
"主语关系(一)"与"宾语关系(一)", "主语关系(一)"作个比较:
-
与宾语关系(一)比较
关键在于形容词的语义特点不同, 二者形成鲜明对比: "宾语关系(一)"中的形容词是强调外界对"事情"的评价, 而这里的形容词是强调人自身对某件事产生的态度或情感
He is easy to please. 别人取悦他很容易
He is eager to please. 他热切的想取悦别人
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与主语关系(一)比较
关键在于形容词的语义特点不同. 上面说过, 主语关系(一)中的形容词是外界对主语的行为进行评价, 而这里的形容词是主语自身的感受或态度, 而不是外界对主语的评价
这里的形容词既不是像主语关系(一)中的那样表示评价"人"的行为, 也不像主语关系(二)中的那样表示"人"的情感, 而是在逻辑语义上说明不定式动作的特点, 因而可以把形容词变为副词来直接修饰动词, 相当于方式状语: 可以把不定式的动词变成一个谓语动词, 而把其中的形容词变为一个副词来充当方式状语, 修饰这个动词
He is slow to react = He reacts slowly.
He was slow to realize that time had changed.
- He realized only slow that time had changed.
不定式可用作独立成分, 用来修饰整个句子, 常见的有: to begin with(首先), to tell the truth(老实说), to make a long story short(长话短说), so to speak(可以这么说), to be brief/exact/frank/honest(简单地说/确切地说/坦率地说/坦白地说), to say nothing of (姑且不说), to say the least(至少可以这么说)等等
To begin with, on behalf of all of your American guests, I wish to thank you for the incomparable hospitality.
有时不定式可引导独立的句子, 表达愿望, 担心, 惊讶等强烈的情感. 常见的结构是: to think, to imagine, 这样的结构常理解为: "你想想...竟有这样的事
To think she wanted to walk all the way to the park.
To spend so much money on something he didn't even need.
To think she might have missed the plane. (past tense)
- It's a good thing she didn't miss her flight.
To think I trusted you = I was wrong to have trusted you.
To think I originally wanted to take five courses this term!
- I couldn't have managed five courses.
在英语中, 逻辑主语都是针对非谓语动词来说的. 对于三种非谓语动词都有一个逻辑主语的问题, 这是因为它们都是动词的变化形式. 既然是动词, 就应该有动作的执行者, 即主语. 之所以称之为逻辑主语, 是为了区别于句子结构上的语法主语, 因为句子谓语的主语和非谓语动词的逻辑主语并不总是统一的, 有时并不一致
He was anxious to meet you. 他渴望认识你
He was anxious for his sister to meet you. 他渴望他妹妹认识你
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作状语
The father will be proud for his son to win the gold medal.
The father will be proud to win the gold medal.
For any adhesive to make a really strong bond, the surfaces to be glued must be absolutely clean and free from moisture or grease.
- for any adhesive to make...放在句首作目的状语
-
作主语
It's important for you to go there in person
- For you to go there in person is important.
-
作定语
American parents express a desire for their children to be happy.
这样的形容词: 用来说明人的性格特征或行为表现的形容词, 当它们与不定式连用时, 要用"of+名词或代词"这一结构引出不定式的逻辑主语. 这样的形容词主要有: brave, careful, careless, clever, cruel, foolish, generous, kind, modest, nice, polite, rude, selfish, silly, stupid, thoughtfu
It's wise of you not to argue with your boss.
| 时态 | 主动语态 | 被动语态 |
|---|---|---|
| 一般式 | to do | to be done |
| 完成式 | to have done | to have been done |
| 进行式 | to be doing | 一般不用 |
| 完成进行式 | to have been doing | 一般不用 |
一般来讲, 在句中若出现了不定式动作的执行者时, 则不定式用主动形式; 若没有执行者, 或不定式所修饰的成分是不定式动作的承受者, 则不定式用被动形式
He wants someone to take some photographs.
He wants some photographs to be taken.
-
作主语的被动不定式
It's an honor for me to be invited to address the international conference.
It is necessary for us to be constantly reminded of our shortcomings.
-
作宾语的被动不定式
She doesn't like to be treated as a distinguished guest.
-
作宾语补足语的被动不定式
He wanted the letter to be delivered at once.
-
作表语的被动不定式
These sheets are to be washed.
This form is to be filled out in ink.
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作状语的被动不定式
She was too old to be assigned such work.
He was afraid to be fooled.
就是指句子的谓语是被动的, 谓语后面所接的不定式也是被动的, 因而形成两个被动结构连用的现象, 即称为双重被动结构
The book is not allowed to be taken out of the library.
The construction is reported to have been completed.
如果不定式的动作在谓语的动作之后发生, 不定式用一般式; 如果不定式的动作在谓语的动作之前发生, 则不定式用完成式
I’m sorry to bother you about this, but that music's really loud.
I’m sorry to have bothered you with so many questions on such an occasion.
不定式的完成式to have done不一定都是表示过去时态. 事实上, 不定式的完成式只是表示不定式的动作在谓语的动作之前发生, 并不能代表具体的时态. 至于它具体能相当于什么时间的动作, 这与句子的谓语以及句子其他方面的信息有关. 一般来讲, 它主要相当于过去时态, 此外还可以是现在完成时态或过去完成时态
- I am sorry to have kept you waiting for so long.
- I am sorry that I have kept you waiting for so long.
- She said she was sorry to have missed you.
- She said she was sorry that she had missed you.
不是所有的谓语动词后面都接不定式的完成式, 而是只有特殊的一小类动词才可能接 to have done
-
态度情感的谓语
主要是一些作谓语的形容词, 比如上面讨论过的I’m sorry, 此外常见的还有I’m happy, I’m blessed等
I am sorry not to have come on Thursday. = I am sorry that I didn't come on Thursday.
I’m sorry to keep you waiting. 对不起, 请稍等一下
I’m sorry to have kept you waiting so long. 很抱歉让你久等了
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观点类的谓语动词
有say, believe, think等, 而且这些谓语常用于被动结构, 即is said, is believed和is thought等
Taking afternoon tea is a unique custom which is said to have started in the early 19th century.
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推断类的谓语
主要是seem, appear
I seem to have lost some weight. Look how baggy my pants are.
我们可以把不定式的完成式用在表示打算, 需要或计划等动词的过去时后面, 表示"过去本打算做但事实上没有实现的动作". 这些动词有: mean, intend, think, plan, hope, wish, propose等等
I planned to have visited you yesterday evening, but I was too busy.
用上述动词的过去完成时态来表示虚拟, 但此时的不定式不可用完成式的to have done, 而要用一般式的to do
I had intended to see you, but I was busy.
- ❌ I had intended to have seen you, but I was busy.
最后, 我们还可用下面这几种结构表达同样的意思: was/were to have done, would like to have done, should like to have done
I was to have visited you yesterday evening.
I was to have telephoned, but I forgot.
综上所述, 表示"过去想做而实际未做成"的事, 有下述三种表达方式:
-
was/were to have done, would like to have done, should like to have done
-
intended (meant, designed, hoped, planned, thought, wished, proposed) + to have done
-
had intended (meant, designed, hoped, planned, thought, wished, proposed) + to do
在某些特殊的结构中, 不定式的完成式还可以表示一个将来的活动, 相当于一个将来完成时态
She hopes to have finished the work by the time he comes back.
- She hopes that she will have finished the work by the time he comes back.
The Great Wall of China is the largest man-made monument ever to have been built.
不定式的进行式即to be doing, 它的含义类似于一个进行时态, 所以常用来表示一个进行的动作, 通常用在特定的谓语后面 seem, happen. 具体来说, 不定式的进行式用于描写在我们谈论的时间(现在或过去)正在发生的动作, 或者说与谓语的动作同时发生的动作
He pretended to be listening attentively when the teacher came by.
I happened to be standing outside the bank, and I saw the robbery take place!
不定式的完成进行式to have been doing可以表示在谓语动作之前已经开始并且一直在持续进行的某一动作, 其含义类似于一个完成进行时态
They are said to have been collecting folk songs in Yunnan.
- It is said that they have been collecting folk songs in Yunnan.
最常见的不定式需要省去to的情况是出现在某些动词的宾语补足语中. 这样的动词主要包括两类:
- 感觉动词(perceptional verb): see, hear, watch, notice, feel, observe
- 使役动词(causative verb): let, make, have
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在一些短语结构中
had better, would rather, would sooner, would just as soon(会尽快), might(just)as well(不妨), cannot but, cannot choose but, cannot help but(不由得)
-
在more than, rather than, other than, than 后面加不带to的不定式
Rather than wait anymore, I decided to go home by taxi.
-
do nothing/anything/everything but do
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why (not) + do
Why pay to see that movie, since you ccan see it on TV for nothing?
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并列结构中
两个动词由and, or, but等词连接时, 为了避免重复而把连词后面的不定式的to省去
I'd like to lie down and (to) go to sleep.
Do you want to have launch now or (to) wait till later?
-
在一些固定的动词搭配中
这些搭配包括: make do(设法应付, 对付), make believe(假装), let drop(使...掉下来), let fall(让...倒下), let fly(放飞), let slip(放走, 错失机会), let go of松开), hear say(听说), leave go of(放走)等等
Let's make believe we are now on a deserted island.
动名词的构成即是在动词后面加-ing, 构成doing的形式. 它在意义上相当于一个名词, 但同时又保留动词的特征
- 说它相当于一个名词, 是因为它在句中主要充当名词可以充当的成分, 比如作主语, 宾语或表语, 此外还可以作定语
- 说它保留动词的特征, 是因为它可以有自己的宾语, 有自己的时态和语态变化, 并且也可保留自己的逻辑主语
与不定式作主语不同, 动名词作主语一般直接放在句首, 谓语动词用单数. 只有在某些特定的句型中才会出现把动名词放在句末作主语, 句首用it形式主语来指代的情况, 这类似于不定式作主语的结构
-
动名词位于句首作主语
动名词作主语一般直接放在句首, 谓语动词用单数
Hating people is like burning down your own house to get rid of a rat.
Getting mad at others means other people are getting control of my emotions!
Really using a language makes all the difference.
-
动名词位于句末作主语
-
句型一: it is <no, any, some> <good, use> doing sth, a waste of time
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
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句型二: there is no <point, use, good> (in) doing sth. 干某事没有用
There is no point in my going out to date someone. I might really like if I met him at the time, but who, right now, has no chance of being anything to me but a transitional man.
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句型三: there is no doing sth.
意思相当于it's impossible to do sth. 或we can't do sth., 表示"不可能做某事"
There is no telling what will happen tomorrow.
-
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在动词后面作宾语
这些动词(短语)后面一般要用动名词作宾语: admit, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, consider, contemplate(深思), delay, deny, detest(憎恨), discuss, dislike, encourage, endure(忍耐), enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy(想象), favor, feel like(感觉像), finish, forbid, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, overlook, permit, postpone, practice, prohibit, put off(推迟), resent, resist, risk, can't stand, stop, suggest, tolerate, understand, regret, resume
- remember to do(记得要做某事), remember doing(记着已经做过的事)
- regret to do(遗憾地通知告诉), regret doing(后悔做了某事)
- go on to do(改变, 继续做其他事情), go on doing(继续做之前的事情)
- prefer to do = prefer doing
- stop to do(停下来去做另外某事), stop doing(停止做某事)
- like to do(偶尔喜欢做某事), like doing sth(一直喜欢做某事)
- mean to do(打算或想做某事), mean doing sth(必须要做某事)
- remember to do(记得去做某事), remember doing(记得做过某事)
Many of the things we do involve taking some risk in order to achieve a satisfactory result.
I can't imagine saying goodbye to the horses. It's become my way of life for the last three years.
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在介词后面作宾语
在介词后面不能直接用动词原形作宾语, 必须改为动名词. 不过, to这个词稍微有些特殊, 因为它既可以是不定式的小品词从而后面接动词原形, 也可以是介词从而后面接动名词. 因此, 读者遇到to时, 必须搞清楚它是作为介词还是作为不定式的符号.
为了便于读者掌握, 我总结了常见的介词to短语, 都必须接动名词, 而不能接动词原形. 这些短语有: look forward to, object to(反对), be/get used to, prefer doing to doing, in addition to, be accustomed to do/doing, amount to doing (意味着), take to doing (开始喜欢做), devote...to doing, dedicate...to doing/be dedicated to doing, be averse to doing(不愿意的), be opposed to doing, get round to doing, the alternative/approach/solution to doing, key to, go on,
I am looking forward to hearing from you
-
在特定的句型中作宾语
-
做某事遇到了麻烦/困难
最常见的是表示"做某事遇到了麻烦/困难", 或"做某事很开心"的句型结构
have + <difficulty, trouble, problems, (a lot of) fun, (lots of) pleasure, a hard time, a good time, a difficult, time> + (in) doing sth
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表示"情不自禁", "不得不"的短语
这些短语包括: can't help/resist doing, can't keep from doing, can't keep/hold back from doing
No one can help liking Tom; he is such a cute boy.
不过要注意下面的短语要接动词原形, 但它们的意思不变: can't help but do, can't but do和can't choose but do.
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其他句型结构, "值得做"
此外, 还有其他一些短语, 比如be worth doing. 注意这些短语要用主动形式, 但表示被动的意思.
The book is worth reading.
还要注意这个句型结构: be worthy of being done/to be done. 比如上面这个例句可以改写为:
The book is worthy of being read.
-
动名词用作表语, 主要就是直接放在be动词后面, 以补充说明句子主语的具体内容
His hobby is collecting stamps.
动名词用作定语, 主要就是放在被修饰的名词前面, 一般表示所修饰名词的用途. 请看下面的例子:
a sleeping car 卧铺车厢
a reading room 阅览室
a swimming pool 游泳池
在英语中, 动名词作定语的情况比较少见, 远没有现在分词作定语的情况常见
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动名词复合结构的构成
物主代词/所有格名词 + 动名词连用, 即构成动名词的复合结构(如his doing, Mary's doing等), 用来引出动名词的逻辑主语. 当句子的主语并不是动名词动作的执行者时, 我们往往需要给出动名词自己的动作发出者, 即动名词的逻辑主语. 请比较:
Clint insisted on reading the letter. 克林特坚持要看信
Clint insisted on my reading the letter. 克林特坚持要我看信
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所有格还是普通格?
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若动名词的复合结构在句中作主语, 最好用所有格形式
Tom's refusing to accept the invitation upset me.
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动名词的复合结构在句中作宾语时, 用普通格或所有格均可
Do you mind me/my making a suggestion?
I am annoyed about John/John's forgetting to pay.
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当动名词的逻辑主语是无生命的"物"而不是"人"时, 最好用普通格
The noise of the desks being opened and closed can be heard out in the street.
There is a necessity for this type of houses being built.
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当动名词的逻辑主语是不定代词(如someone, anyone, everyone等)时, 最好用普通格
He was awakened by someone knocking on the door.
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当动名词的逻辑主语由较长的一组词构成时, 最好用普通格
There is no point any one of us arguing with him.
I’ve always had in my mind a dream of [my father, mother and I] living together.
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动名词复合结构的用法
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用作主语
Tom's coming home at last was a great consolation.
The young leading the young, is like the blind leading the blind; "They will both fall into the ditch."The only sure guide is he who has often gone the road which you want to go. Let me be that guide, who have gone all roads, and who can consequently point out to you the best.
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用作动词的宾语
Do you mind my making a suggestion?
Would you mind Tom's telling us the whole story?
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用作介词的宾语
Our discussion of earthquakes would be incomplete if we didn't raise the possibility of their being caused by external forces.
Clint insisted on my reading the letter.
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动名词的时态和语态概述
时态 主动语态 被动语态 一般式 doing being done 完成式 having done having been done 进行式 - - 完成进行式 - - -
动名词的被动式
一般来说, 当动名词所修饰的名词或代词在意义上是充当动名词动作的承受者, 或者说是作动名词的逻辑宾语时, 动名词要用被动形式. 请看例句:
He narrowly escaped being run over. 他差一点就被车撞了
There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about.
I still remember being taken to the zoo for the first time.
I remember my parents’ taking me to the zoo for the first time.
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主动形式表示被动意思
在demand, deserve, need, require, want等动词后面, 动名词的主动形式就表示被动的意思, 而不需用动名词的被动形式
The garden needs watering.
He deserved praising.
Your hair needs cutting.
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动名词的完成主动式
一般来说, 动名词的完成式表明动名词的动作发生在谓语的动作之前, 尤其是当动名词的动作是在谓语之前的一段较长时间内持续的情况
He denied having been there = He denied that he had been there.
I regretted not having gone to university.
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动名词的完成被动式
I appreciate having been given the opportunity to study abroad two years ago.
there be的动名词形式为there being, 依然表示"有"的意思, 多用于介词后面
He spoke of there being danger.
there be的不定式形式为there to be, 用在接不定式作宾语的动词后面或介词for后面
I don't mean there to be any unpleasantness.
For there to be life, there must be air and water.
It isn't cold enough for there to be a frost tonight.
要想真正完全掌握分词的用法, 需要从下列三个方面下功夫:
- 分词的意义: 即要掌握现在分词和过去分词各自不同的意义和内涵. 一般认为, 现在分词表示
主动进行, 过去分词表示被动完成. 我们可以大致这样理解, 但不完全正确 - 分词的作用: 即分词在句中充当的语法功能, 主要就是作状语和作定语. 尤其是作状语的分词, 可以表示各种不同的意义以及使用不同的结构
- 动词的用法: 即需要知道动词的及物性或不及物性. 这一点很容易被忽略. 因为分词也是动词, 而动词的意义和用法必然影响到分词的使用, 比如到底该用现在分词还是过去分词
| \ | 主动含义 | 被动含义 |
|---|---|---|
| 一般动作 | doing 定语, 状语 | done 定语, 状语 |
| 进行动作 | doing 定语 | being done 定语 |
| 完成动作 | having done 状语 | having been done 状语 |
不及物动词的过去分词只能做前置定语不能做状语, 其完成时做状语
到底是用现在分词作定语还是用过去分词作定语, 这主要是取决于分词与其所修饰名词之间的逻辑语义关系, 是出于句子意思表达的需要. 比如, 动词sink与名词ship之间的逻辑关系可以分别用现在分词sinking和过去分词sunken来表达, 但二者意思不同, 请看下例:
the sinking ship 正在下沉的船
the sunken ship 已沉于水底的船
从两个角度来考察分词的含义 - 语态角度和时态角度
-
从语态角度来看, 现在分词表示 主动 意义, 它与所修饰的名词构成主谓关系
-
从时态角度来看, 现在分词一般表示 进行 的动作, 相当于进行时态; 同时还可以表示一般的动作, 此时相当于一般时态.
现在分词的主要意义有两类:
-
主动的, 正在进行的动作
此时的现在分词具备以下两个特点:
- 若把分词改成定语从句, 则定语从句的谓语要用进行时态
- 此时的现在分词多数表示的是所修饰名词的一种短暂性的特点, 是强调正在发生的一个动作
The sinking ship = the ship that is sinking
I like the girl dancing with that guy = I like the girl who is dancing with that guy.
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主动的, 一般的动作
此时的现在分词具备以下两个特点:
- 若把分词改成定语从句, 则定语从句的谓语要用一般时态
- 此时的现在分词多数表示的是所修饰名词的一种持久性的特点, 并不是强调正在发生的动作
Unidentified Flying Objects = unidentified objects that fly
They live in a room facing the south = They live in a room that faces the south.
我们同样可以从语态和时态两个角度来考察过去分词的含义:
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从语态角度来看, 一般认为, 过去分词只是表示被动含义, 其实这种说法是不确切的. 对于过去分词含义的理解稍微复杂一点, 我们必须区分及物动词和不及物动词:
- 及物动词的过去分词只表示被动含义, 没有主动含义
- 不及物动词的过去分词只有主动含义, 没有被动含义
不过话说回来, 不及物动词的过去分词远比及物动词的过去分词出现的频率要低, 因此常见的过去分词都是从及物动词变化过来的, 所以过去分词通常表示被动意义(不及物动词的过去分词除外)
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从时态角度来看, 过去分词都没有进行的意味, 而具有一般动作或完成动作的含义, 相当于一个一般时态或完成时态. 具体点说, 及物动词的过去分词具有一般动作或完成动作的含义, 而不及物动词的过去分词只表示完成动作
过去分词的主要意义有两类: 被动一般或被动完成的动作和主动完成的动作
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及物动词: 被动一般或被动完成的动作
此时的过去分词具备以下两个特点:
- 此时的过去分词是由及物动词变化而来
- 若将分词改成定语从句, 则定语从句的谓语要用被动语态
the exploited class = the class that is exploited
the oppressed nations = the nations that are oppressed
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不及物动词: 主动完成的动作
此时的过去分词具备以下两个特点:
-
此时的过去分词是由不及物动词变化而来. 由不及物动词变来的过去分词则不表示被动, 只表示主动的, 完成的动作. 此时, 过去分词一般表示一种完成的状态, 而多数已失去了原动词的动作的概念.
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此时若将分词改成定语从句, 则定语从句的谓语要用主动语态和完成时态
the sunken ship = the ship that has sunk
fallen leaves = leaves that have fallen
此外还有如: vanished civilization (失落的文明), the risen sun (升起的太阳), rotten teeth (坏了的牙齿), shrunken clothes (缩水的衣服), escaped prisoners (逃犯)
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不及物动词的现在分词与过去分词都表示主动, 那有何区别呢？其实这个问题上面的例句中涉及过. 二者的区别在于时态上:
-
不及物动词的现在分词往往表示主动进行的动作
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不及物动词的过去分词表示主动完成的动作
-
the sinking ship=the ship that was sinking
-
the sunken ship=the ship that has sunken
现在分词和过去分词在意义上的区别主要有:
- 从语态角度来看, 现在分词表示主动意义, 它与被修饰的名词构成主谓关系. 而过去分词通常表示被动意义(不及物动词的过去分词除外), 与它所修饰的名词构成动宾关系.
- 从时态角度来看, 现在分词往往表示进行的动作, 或者是一般的动作. 过去分词则表示一般的动作或完成的动作, 不表示进行的动作. 若表示被动的, 正在进行的动作, 我们就要用being done的形式
单独的分词(短语)作状语, 即分词前面没有带名词, 而是直接把分词短语放在句首, 句中或句末作状语. 此时分词短语的逻辑主语必须与句子的主语一致. 换句话说, 分词的动作应该是由句子的主语发出的. 为了证明这种"主语一致"的重要性, 我们先来举例反证, 看看如果两个主语不一致, 会出现什么情况:
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垂悬分词(dangling participle)
受汉语思维方式的影响, 很多英语初学者往往会造出中文通顺但不符合英文逻辑表达的句子, "垂悬分词"就是其中很重要的一种. 比如, 中文里说: 等车的时候, 一块砖头砸到我头上了.
这句话非常通顺. 但这句话若按中文语序直接译成英语就会出问题. 请看译文:
❌ Waiting for a bus, a brick fell on my head.
- When I was waiting for a bus, a brick fell on my head.
❌ Looking out of the window, there are lots of people in the street.
- Looking out of the window, I saw lots of people on the street.
❌ When using the computer, the password must be remembered.
- When using the computer, you must remember the password.
❌ Arriving home, the door was found locked.
- Arrving home, I found the door locked.
❌ Being a pop fan, Jay Chou is her favorite.
- Being a pop fan, she likes Jay Chou is her most.
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分词的逻辑主语与句子的主语须一致
我们说 分词的逻辑主语与句子的主语须一致, 也就是说分词的动作应该是由句子的主语发出的
Good relationships are hard to find and once developed should be nurtured.
分词动作的执行者和谓语动作的执行者不同, 分词有自己独立的主语. 此时, 我们就需要采用"名词+分词"这一结构作状语. 这里的"名词"就是分词的逻辑主语, 以区别于句子的主语. 这一结构其实就是我们常说的"独立主格结构"的一种, 叫作"独立分词结构". 这就类似于动名词的复合结构(如my doing)和不定式的复合结构(如for sb. to do)
Weather permitting, we’ll be going fishing tomorrow.
- If weather permits, we’ll be going fishing tomorrow.
Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.
- Since nobody had any more to say, the meeting was closed.
Most of his works today reflect his observations of Chinese people's lives in their different aspects, the emphasis being on the countryside lifestyles of the northern Shaanxi and Tibetans in Zhongdian, in southwest China's Yunnan Province.
- Most of his works today reflect his observations of Chinese people's lives, the emphasis in Zhongdian, in southwest China's Yunnan Province.
它作状语所表达的意义与"名词+分词"这一结构所表达的意义有很大的不同. 因此, 我们需要知道何时该用"名词+分词"作状语, 何时宜用"with+名词+分词"作状语
A car roared past, with smoke pouring from the exhaust.
The old man often takes a walk after supper with his dog following him.
本小节要讨论的内容是对 12.2.1 主语一致: 单独的分词(短语)作状语 情形的补充, 即在一些表示说话人态度的固定表达方式中, 分词的逻辑主语和句子的主语是不一致的. 但因为这已是约定俗成的固定结构, 所以不算错
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副词 + speaking
比如generally (strictly, broadly, ...) speaking等等.
Generally speaking, men are stronger than women.
- If we are to speak generally, men are stronger than women.
Strictly speaking, this is not a right answer.
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分词 + 介词
比如judging from, talking of, allowing for(考虑到)
Judging from his expression, he is in a lousy mood.
单独的分词作状语以及"名词+分词"这一独立分词结构作状语, 二者所能表达的意义较多, 可表示时间, 原因, 条件, 让步, 结果和伴随等等.
"with+名词+分词", 它在句中表示的意义没有这么广泛, 一般只表示两类: 1. 表示伴随状况, 补充说明, 具体举例等 2. 表示原因, 对此要特别关注
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"名词 + 分词"作状语的意义
单独的分词和"名词+分词"这两类分词结构作状语, 表达的意义较多:
-
表示时间
In May, Julie Nimmons, president of Schutt Sports in Illinois, successfully fought a lawsuit involving a football player who was paralyzed in a game while wearing a Schutt helmet.
Having watered the garden, he began to mow the lawn.
- After he had watered the garden, he began to mow the lawn.
Having noted down our names and addresses, the policeman dismissed us.
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表示原因
That is why women remain children their whole life long: never seeing anything but what is quite close to them, clinging to the present moment, taking appearance for reality, and preferring trifles to matters of the first importance.
Being interested in the relationship of language and thought, Whorf developed the idea that the structure of language determines the structure of habitual thought in a society.
Not knowing what to do next, I want to ask for your advice. = Because I don't know what to do next, I want to ask for your advice.
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表示结果
Finding the door locked, I went home. finding表示时间
I went home, finding the door locked. finding表示结果
He fired, killing one of the bandits.
His wife died three years ago, leaving him with five children.
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表示条件
Therefore, jogging and dieting, carried to extremes, can be hazardous.
In dealing with a challenge on such a scale, it is no exaggeration to say, "United we stand, divided we fall."
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表示方式
分词用作方式状语, 往往修饰句子中的谓语动词, 可以放在句首, 也可以放在句末
Smiling, he answered.
She came running hurriedly into her husband's office one morning.
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表示让步
Having lived in Canada for three years, he still can't speak English well.
Mocked at by everybody, he had my sympathy.
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表示补充说明或伴随状况
这与前面讲过的表示方式很类似, 有时难以区分
And that is where they were last seen, standing arm in arm on the deck, this devoted wife clinging courageously to her husband, this loving husband clinging protectively to his wife, as the ship sank. Together forever...
The Chinese word for crisis is divided into two characters, one meaning danger and the other meaning opportunity.
She had her hands full every minute, fetching water, building the fire and washing
-
-
"with + 名词短语 + 分词" 作状语的意义
"with + 名词短语 + 分词"这一结构作状语, 所表达的意义主要有两类:
-
表示伴随状况, 补充说明, 具体举例
London was found to be the least punctual city, with 41 percent of respondents admitting that they were hardly ever on time, compared with the national average of 28 percent.
Mobile phones have broken many social taboos, with people answering calls in the middle of a conversation or chatting away on the toilet.
Good news was sometimes released prematurely, with the British recapture of the port announced half a day before the defenders actually surrendered.
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表示原因
Good timekeeping is becoming a forgotten social etiquette, with a new generation considering lateness the norm rather than a faux pas that should be avoided.
With the temperature falling so rapidly, we couldn't go on with the experiment
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-
分词短语作状语时可以保留相应的连词
分词短语作状语可与相应的连词连用. 用在连词后面的分词短语作状语, 相当于简化后的状语从句保留了连词
Once deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.
- Once it is deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.
Be careful while crossing the road.
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单个分词作定语要前置
When the Titanic began to sink, panicked women and children were the first ones loaded into lifeboats. Mr. and Mrs. Straus were calm and comforting the passengers, and helped many of them into the boats
Please enclose a stamped addressed envelope.
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分词短语作定语要后置
Police hunting the killer of a part-time police officer stabbed outside her home in northwest London are seeking a man wearing a hooded top seen running away from the scene.
- Police are seeking a man
- Police hunting the killer of a part-time police officer
- police officer stabbed outside her home in northwest London
- a man wearing a hooded top
- a man seen running away from the scene
The emphasis on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.
- The emphasis, combined with a perspective, makes this study a social science.
- gathered修饰data, 作定语, 译成"收集第一手资料
- combined with是将emphasis和perspective这两个关键词联系起来, 构成一个并列关系
- brought修饰perspective, 作定语, 相当于主动语态的bring a cross-cultural perspective to the analysis of cultures past and present, 这里的past and present是作后置定语修饰cultures
- 强调收集第一手资料, 加上在分析过去和现在文化形态时采用跨文化视角, 使得这一研究成为一门独特并且非常重要的社会科学
- 虽然这里的combined with连接两个并列成分emphasis和perspective, 但谓语动词的单复数要依据前一个名词即emphasis而定. 这里的emphasis是单数, 所以后面的谓语用了单数的makes, 而不是make
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后置定语的三种被动结构
-
to be done: 表示将来的动作, 这里是用不定式的被动态.
For any adhesive to make a really strong bond, the surfaces to be glued must be absolutely clean and free from moisture or grease
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being done: 表示进行的动作.
The question being discussed is very important.
The house being built will be our library upon its completion.
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done: 表示一般过去或完成的动作
Did you attend the meeting held last month in Shanghai?
-
-
分词在感觉动词后充当宾语补足语
这样的感觉动词(perception verb)包括: find, hear, smell, observe, watch和notice
leave sth/sb doing, catch sb doing
Do you hear all those different birds singing in the park?
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作补足语的分词与不定式的区别
二者的区别是: 用现在分词, 强调动作正在进行; 用不定式则表示一般的动作或一个动作自始至终的全过程
I watched them climb the tower. 我观看他们一直爬到塔顶
I watched them climbing the tower. 我看见他们正在往塔顶爬
分词作定语是分词修饰句中的某个名词, 而分词作状语则是修饰句子谓语或句中的其他动词, 比如表示动作的原因或方式
The government is to ban payments to witnesses by newspapers seeking to buy up people involved in prominent cases such as the trial of Rosemary West.
- payments后面带有两个并联的定语to witnesses和by newspapers, 分别表示"付钱给目击证人"和"由报纸媒体来付钱", 合起来就表示"由报纸媒体向目击证人付钱
- 两个串联的定语结构, 分词短语seeking to buy up people后置修饰newspapers, 表示"报纸媒体笼络这些人"; 分词短语involved in prominent cases such as the trial of Rosemary West后置修饰people, 表示"参与重大案件审判的人, 如审判罗斯玛丽·维斯特一案
- 政府禁止报界向重大案件(如对罗斯玛丽·维斯特的审判)的目击者付钱以收买他们
The natural scientist, Abansit di Ginevra, had spent twenty years collecting data of weather conditions. One day his new maid tidied his study. When he came back he could not find his collection. The maid told him that she had burnt everything thinking it was of no use. Abansit controlling himself said in despair, "It was the result of my hard work of twenty years. Please don't touch anything in the room again.
- 分词短语thinking it was of no use是用作状语, 表示原因, 用来解释为什么she had burnt everything. thinking的逻辑主语即是句子的主语the maid. 我们可以把这个句子改写成一个原因状语从句, 就是"The maid told him that she had burnt everything as she thought it was of no use.
在英文中, 大多数分词结构都可以作定语, 但要特别注意两类分词结构:
TODO: why?
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分词的完成式只作状语, 一般不能用在名词后面作后置定语(因为是短语, 当然就更无法作前置定语)
❌ The Chinese children having been raised in the U.S. can speak fluent English. 这些在美国长大的中国孩子能说很流利的英语
- The Chinese children who have been raised in the U.S. can speak fluent English
The Chinese children having been raised in the U.S., we find they have a totally different value from that of those raised in China. 由于这些孩子在美国长大, 我们发现他们的价值观和中国孩子的完全不同
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不及物动词的过去分词只能作前置定语, 不能作后置定语
❌ The Chinese children grown in the U.S. can speak fluent English.
- Grown in the U.S., the Chinese children can speak fluent English.
All the flowers grown(种植) here have developed from those _B_(栽培) in the forest.
- A. that once raised B. that once grew C.once raising D.once grown
- grow既可以作及物动词又可以作不及物动词. 作及物动词时grow的意思是"种植, 栽培", 而作不及物动词时grow的意思是"生长, 成长; 增加"
- 种植在这里的花, 是利用森林中自然野生的花培养而来的
大多数分词结构都可以用作状语, 但有一个例外, 即不及物动词的过去分词不能作状语, 但它的完成式可以作状语
❌ Grown up in a small village, I developed a great interest in...
- Having grown up in a small village, I developed a great interest in...
分词采用一般式(doing)还是完成式(having done), 这主要取决于分词所表示的动作或状态(the action or state named by the participle)与句子的谓语动词(main verb)之间的关系. 具体来说, 规则如下:
- 一般式: 当分词所表示的动作或状态与谓语动词所表示的动作或状态同时发生或在它之后发生, 则要用分词的一般式
- 完成式: 当分词所表示的动作或状态在谓语动词所表示的动作或状态之前发生, 则要用分词的完成式
Having sung a song, he sat down. 他唱完一首歌后, 就坐了下来
Singing a song, he sat down. 唱着歌的同时, 他就坐了下来
- 分词动作sing和谓语动作sit两者同时发生, 两个动作并没有先后之分, 即表示"唱着歌的同时, 他就坐了下来", 给人的感觉是"他坐着唱歌". 若此时也要表示两个动作先后发生, 则要加时间连词来明示, 比如说"After singing a song, he sat down.
分词动作先于谓语动作具体有两种表现:
-
如果分词是短暂动词, 则分词的完成式所表示的动作往往是在谓语动作之前多次发生过, 即表现为
重复性(repetition)的特点Having been bitten twice, the postman refused to deliver our letters unless we chained our dog up.
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如果分词是延续动词, 则分词的完成式所表示的动作往往是在谓语动作之前发生并且持续了一段时间, 即表现为
持续性(continuation)的特点. 下面我们将分别举例做详细说明Having been an English teacher for more than ten years, and having been constantly exposed to American culture through American friends and the American mass media, I did not experience the so-called "culture shock"when I came to Harvard University. However, it still took me some time to learn "to do as the Americans do when in America.
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如果分词的动作既不表示延续, 也不是重复发生, 如果分词的动作与谓语动作之间有一段时间间隔(a long interval), 此时分词最好还是用完成式
Having failed to qualify as a doctor, I took up teaching.
Having locked all the doors in the shop, he went home.
现在把分词的延续动作和短暂动作, 以及分词的一般式和完成式综合起来比较一下. 如下面的例句:
-
Having read the newspaper, I walked over to the windows and saw it's raining outside.
- 看完报纸, 我走到窗前, 看见外面正在下雨
- read是延续动词, 用完成式having read表示"看报"这个动作本身持续了一段时间, 结束后, 谓语动作walk才发生, 所以整个句子表示"看完报纸然后走到窗前"
-
Reading the newspaper, I walked over to the windows and saw it's raining outside.
- 看着报纸, 我走到窗前, 看见外面正在下雨
- 延续动词read用了一般式, 往往表示是与谓语动作walk同时发生的, 所以整个句子表示"他一边看着报纸, 一边走到窗前". 若此时也要表示两个动作先后发生, 则要加时间连词来明示, 比如说"After reading the newspaper, ..."
-
Putting down the newspaper, I walked over to the windows and saw it's raining outside.
- 放下报纸, 我走到窗前, 看见外面正在下雨
- put down是短暂动词, 这里的两个动作put和walk的间隔时间很短, "我"是一放下报纸, 就紧接着走到窗前, 所以宜用一般式putting. 如果用完成式having put down, 则给人的感觉是"放报纸"的动作本身持续了很长时间, 好像是在"慢镜头"似地放报纸. 再者, put和walk两个动作不可能同时发生, 必然是一先一后的, 因此不会造成句子的歧义. 所以, 我们不必说"Having put down...". 这点不同于延续动词read, read和walk两者可以同时发生, 因为可以边走边看报, 这就是为什么在例句1)中非得用完成式having read才能表示read和walk两个动作是独立完成的
分词在构成复合形容词方面是非常活跃的, 我们可以用现在分词和过去分词分别与名词, 形容词和副词构成复合形容词: 名词/形容词/副词 + 分词
谓外部关系, 是指分词与它所修饰的名词之间的关系. 如English-speaking countries这个短语, 其外部关系即指现在分词speaking和它所修饰的名词countries之间的关系. 所以, 外部关系不外乎两种--主动关系或被动关系. 比如countries与speak之间是主动关系, 相当于说people in these countries speak (English), 所以用能够表示主动关系的现在分词speaking来构成复合形容词.
内部关系, 是指构成复合形容词的两个词之间的关系, 也就是指分词与能构成复合形容词的其他词(如名词, 形容词或副词)之间的关系. 如English-speaking countries这个短语, 其内部关系即指现在分词speaking和名词English之间的关系. 内部关系相当复杂, 这也是构成复合形容词的难点. 比如复合形容词English-speaking的两个构成元素English与speak, 在逻辑上构成动宾关系, 相当于说 (people in these countries) speak English.
"外部关系"决定了是用现在分词还是用过去分词来构成复合形容词, 而"内部关系"则决定了是用名词, 形容词还是副词来构成复合形容词.
首先分析"外部关系", 即先判断是应该用现在分词还是应该用过去分词来构成复合形容词. 在外部关系正确无误的情况下, 我们再判断"内"部关系, 即判断应该用什么词性的词与分词构成复合形容词.
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现在分词构成的复合形容词的共同特点
共同的"外部关系"特点: 即被修饰的名词与现在分词存在逻辑上的
主谓关系, 或者说被修饰的名词可以作现在分词的逻辑主语"内部关系"则是此类复合形容词的个性特点. 所以正确理解"内部关系", 则成为正确使用此类复合形容词的关键
-
名词 + 及物动词的现在分词
内部关系: 现在分词与构成复合形容词的名词存在逻辑上的
动宾关系, 即复合形容词内的名词在逻辑上是作分词的宾语ice-thawing visit
face-swapping skill
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名词 + 不及物动词的现在分词
内部关系: 现在分词与构成复合形容词的名词存在逻辑上的
动状关系, 即动作与状语的关系. 具体来说, 复合形容词内的名词可与特定的介词连用构成介词短语, 然后修饰现在分词所表示的动作sky-walking kite
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名词 + 系动词的现在分词
内部关系: 现在分词与构成复合形容词的名词存在逻辑上的
系表关系, 即复合形容词内的名词在逻辑上是作分词的表语fossil-appearing objects
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形容词 + 系动词的现在分词
内部关系: 现在分词与构成复合形容词的形容词存在逻辑上的
系表关系, 即复合形容词内的形容词在逻辑上是作分词的表语a good-looking man
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副词 + 不及物动词的现在分词
内部关系: 现在分词与构成复合形容词的副词存在逻辑上的
动状关系, 即复合形容词内的副词在逻辑上是作分词的状语fast-talking attorney
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过去分词构成的复合形容词的共同特点
"外部关系"的特点: 被修饰的名词与过去分词存在逻辑上的
动宾关系"内部关系"则是这一类复合形容词的个性特点. 所以正确理解"内部关系"就成为正确使用这一类复合形容词的关键
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名词 + 及物动词的过去分词
内部关系: 过去分词与构成复合形容词的名词存在逻辑上的
动状关系, 即复合形容词内的名词在逻辑上是作分词的状语U.S.-led war
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形容词 + 及物动词的过去分词
内部关系: 过去分词与构成复合形容词的形容词存在逻辑上的
动补关系, 即动词与补足语的关系, 也就是说复合形容词内的形容词在逻辑上是作分词动作的补足语a green-painted house
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副词 + 及物动词的过去分词
内部关系: 过去分词与构成复合形容词的副词存在逻辑上的
动状关系, 即动作与状语的关系, 也就是说复合形容词内的副词在逻辑上是作分词动作的状语newly-elected president
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形容词 + 名词 + ed
bad-tempered people
warm-hearted people
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数词 + 名词 + ed
a one-eyed camel
a two-faced person
7 名词从句中我们讲过, 四大类名词从句(即主语从句, 宾语从句, 表语从句和同位语从句)主要是由三种句子转化过来的, 即陈述句, 一般疑问句和特殊疑问句
| 名词从句 | 非谓语简化 |
|---|---|
| 陈述句转化为名词从句时要用连词that引导 | 动名词复合结构 |
| 一般疑问句转化为名词从句时要用if或whether来引导 | 不定式 |
| 特殊疑问句转化为名词从句时不需要另外添加连词, 只需保留特殊疑问词(如what或who)即可 | 不定式 |
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that引导的主语从句与动名词
直接用动名词的复合结构来替换主语从句, 放在句首作主语
It surprised us that John won the marathon.
That John won the marathon surprised us.
John's winning the marathon surprised us.
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that引导的宾语从句与动名词
由that引导的宾语从句的简化较为复杂, 因为它可以转换成动名词, 也可以转换成不定式, 这主要与主句谓语动词的用法密切相关
I consider that I will emigrate to America in the future.
- I consider emigrating to America in the future.
Jane's mother insisted that she should go swimming with her brother.
- Jane's mother insisted on her going swimming with her brother.
I hope that I can drive to work in my own car.
- I hope to drive to work in my own car.
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that引导的同位语从句与动名词
简化that引导的同位语从句时, 也是变同位语从句为一个动名词的复合结构. 但是, 因为英文中没有"名词+动名词"这样的结构, 所以要在同位语从句修饰的名词后面加上一个介词, 来连接名词与动名词, 同时表达同位语关系. 能担当此任的介词通常是of, 偶尔可以用about等. 于是句子由原来的同位语从句结构"名词+that同位语从句"变成了一个动名词结构"名词+of+动名词的复合结构"
There was no chance that Davy would come from the battle alive.
- There was no chance of Davy coming from the battle alive.
We were greatly encouraged by the news that China had launched another man-made satellite.
- We were greatly encouraged by the news of China having launched another man-made satellite
由疑问句变来的, 即由whether或what等引导的名词从句一般简化为不定式, 其实主要是宾语从句简化为不定式. 此时的宾语从句中往往含有情态动词, 比较多见的是should或can/could
She can't decide whether she should go with him or stay home.
- She can't decide whether to go with him or (to) stay home
I don't know what I should do.
- I don't know what to do.
Please tell me how I can get to the bus station.
- Please tell me how to get to the bus station.
只有当关系词在定语从句中作主语时, 才能把定语从句简化为短语
把定语从句简化为非谓语的形式, 虽然结构变得简洁(concision)了, 但这是以明晰性(clarity)为代价的, 即逻辑语义关系的明晰性降低了, 意思变得模糊了. 对此, 读者应该有所了解. 这是某些定语从句不能简化成分词短语的一个重要原因
The people who were responsible for the incident were all punished.
- The people responsible for the incident were all punished. 形容词短语
the girl who was standing in the corner
- the girl standing in the corner 分词短语
- the girl in the corner
在关系词充当定语从句的主语的前提下, 如果从句的谓语是实义动词, 那么此时的定语从句简化后一定就是分词短语, 包括现在分词短语和过去分词短语
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分词的动作与句子谓语的动作之间的时间关系
分词的动作是没有时间概念的, 分词动作的时间概念要通过句子谓语的时态体现出来, 与它一致, 我称之为
分词动作的时间与句子谓语的时间一致性原则. 因此, 当定语从句的谓语动作的时间与主句谓语的时间不一致时, 此时的定语从句通常不能改写成分词短语The men working on the site were in some danger.
- The men who were working on the site were in some danger.
The men working on the site are in some danger.
- The men who are working on the site are in some danger.
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可以简化成分词短语的定语从句
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主从句的谓语同为现在时间
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主从句的谓语动词的动作都是现在的一般的动作, 即为一般现在时态
China is a developing country which belongs to the third world.
- China is a developing country belonging to the third world.
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主从句的时间都表示现在, 但主句的谓语表示一般状态, 而从句的谓语表示现在进行的动作
Do you know the boy who is playing the violin?
- Do you know the boy playing the violin?
-
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主从句的谓语同为过去时间
He used to live in the house which faced south.
- He used to live in the house facing south.
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主从句的谓语时间不一致
一般来讲, 若主句谓语动作发生时间先于从句谓语动作发生的的时间, 此时从句能简化为分词
在某些特殊情况下, 尽管主句与从句谓语的时间不一致, 但在不影响句子意思表达的情况下, 可以把定语从句简化为分词短语. 比如在下面这句话中, 从句的谓语是现在进行时态, 而主句的谓语是一般过去时态:
The girl who is playing basketball used to be very weak.
- The girl playing basketball used to be very weak.
-
-
无法简化成分词短语的定语从句
-
因时态限制不能转换
一般来讲, 若从句谓语动作发生的时间先于主句谓语动作发生的时间, 此时从句不能简化为分词
Do you know the boy who broke the window?
The girl who stood at the gate yesterday is my sister.
❌ The girl standing at the gate yesterday is my sister.
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定语从句中含有情态动词时
如果定语从句中含有情态动词, 具有特定的情态含义, 那么若简化为分词, 则会失去情态的意味, 因此一般不能简化
Is there anyone who can answer the question?
❌ Is there anyone answering the question?
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定语从句由be动词作谓语时
Those who are busy don't have to go.
❌ Those being busy don't have to go. 因为在英语中, "being+形容词"这样的结构不能作后置定语.
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在一些特殊的句子里, 有时由于语义上的原因, 不能转换
The man who cooked for the students has died.
这里从句的谓语cooked是过去时态, 主句的谓语has died是现在完成时态. 如果改写成分词后说成:
❌ The man cooking for the students has died.
那么根据现在分词作定语的特点, 还原后只能是:
❌ The man who is cooking/cooks for the students has died.
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上面讨论的主要是将定语从句替换成分词的形式, 这是因为分词具备形容词的功能, 主要用来作定语. 而不定式也可当作形容词来用, 在句中作定语. 一般来说, 被the only, the last, the next, 序数词和最高级形容词修饰的名词, 其后所接的定语从句往往要用不定式来替换
You are the only one that can understand me.
- You are the only one to understand me.
The next train that arrives is from New York.
- The next train to arrive is from New York.
只有当状语从句的主语和主句的主语相同时, 才能把状语从句换成短语. 否则, 会引起句义的改变
由于分词具有副词的功能, 可以在句中作状语, 所以状语从句往往可以简化成分词短语. 具体的简化操作是:
-
如果状语从句中含有be动词, 我们只需把从句主语和be动词省去, 即简化成短语
A tiger can't be tamed unless it is caught very young.
- A tiger can't be tamed unless caught very young.
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如果状语从句中没有be动词, 我们则可把从句的主语省去并且把动词变成现在分词-ing形式. 对于这种状语从句的简化, 其实就相当于分词作状语
Since I came to Beijing, I have made many new friends.
- Since coming to Beijing, I have made many new friends.
After I finished my homework, I fed the dog.
- After finishing my homework, I fed the dog.
能够简化为不定式的状语从句一般只有目的状语从句, 因为在英语中, 作目的状语几乎成了不定式的专属功能
I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.
- I turned off the TV in order for my roommate to study in peace and quiet.
They carved the words on the stone so that/in order that the future generation should remember what they had done.
- They carved the words on the stone in order for the future generation to remember what they had done.
语气(mood)是英文中谓语动词的一种变化形式, 用来表示说话者的意图和态度. 英文中的语气可分为三种: 陈述语气(indicative mood), 祈使语气(imperative mood)和虚拟语气(subjunctive mood). 在一些场合里, 当说话者谈到自己与实际情况相反的情况时, 或者主观想象某事有可能发生时, 或建议, 要求某事发生时, 就需要借助虚拟语气来表达这些心态
一般来讲, 英语中的虚拟语气可以分为两大体系:
- 一是表示与事实相反的或假想的情形, 通常由if引导, 叫作"非真实条件句(unreal conditional)", 或者叫"虚拟条件句"
- 另一个体系是在名词从句中使用虚拟语气, 表示建议, 命令或要求等语气, 这是一个完全不同于非真实条件句的虚拟的结构形式
这里说的"两类三时"是指虚拟条件句具有两种类型, 并会对三种时间进行虚拟. 具体来说, 虚拟条件句的两种类型是:
- 假设条件句 hypothetical, 是表示一种假想的情形, 表示说话者的一种主观愿望或态度等, 实现的可能性不大或极小
- 事实相反句 counterfactual, 是表示与现在或过去的某个事实相反的情形
- 对三种时间进行虚拟, 即是对将来, 现在和过去这三种时间的虚拟
对于将来的情形只能是假设; 对于现在的情形既可以是假设, 也可以是谈与现在事实相反的情况; 对于过去, 只能是谈与事实相反的情形
假设条件句表达的是一种在将来或现在可能性不大(unlikely)的情形, 但不是不可能(impossible)的情形, 表示说话人认为不可能, 是一种比较主观的表达, 而不是与客观事实相反. 它尤其用来谈将来的情形, 也可以谈现在. 事实相反句表达的是一种与现在或过去的事实相违背的情形, 因此是不可能发生的, 而不是可能性不大
时态变化: 从句往前推, 主句4加1, 将来同现在
| 虚拟时间 | IF从句谓语形式 | 主句的谓语形式 |
|---|---|---|
| 将来 | were to do / should do / did / were | would (could, might, should) + do |
| 现在 | did / were | would (could, might, should) + do |
| 过去 | had done / had been | would (could, might, should) + have done |
在英文中, 虚拟从句可以采用倒装结构. 具体来说, 当if引导的条件句省去if时, 可将should, had或were置于句首, 从而构成倒装虚拟句, 而意义不变
Should I win the lottery, I would buy a car.
- If I should win the lottery, I would buy a car.
这类虚拟句一般分为两部分, 两部分在语气上截然相反, 一部分虚拟, 另一部分不虚拟, 而用的是陈述语气, 用以陈述一个事实. 比如上面这个句子就是"陈述句or+虚拟句"这样的结构. 它们二者之间往往有but, or, or else或otherwise来连接. 正是因为这种虚拟与不虚拟兼而有之, 一部分虚拟, 一部分又跳出虚拟的圈子, 故我称之为"跳层虚拟句"
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陈述句+or+虚拟主句
- 主语一般现在时的谓语形式, <or, else, otherwise> + 主语 + would do 表示对现在事实的虚拟
- 主语一般过去时的谓语形式, <or, else, otherwise> + 主语 + would have done 表示对过去事实的虚拟
We didn’t know his telephone number, otherwise we would have telephoned him.
- We would have telephoned him if we had known his telephone number.
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虚拟主句+but+陈述句
- 主语 + would do, BUT + 主语 + 一般现在时的谓语形式. 表示对现在事实的虚拟
- 主语 + would have done, BUT + 主语+一般过去时的谓语形式. 表示对过去事实的虚拟
Some women could have made a good salary in a job instead of staying home, but they decided not to work for the sake of the family.
- Some women could have made a good salary in a job instead of staying home if they hadn’t decided not to work for the sake of the family.
在特定的名词从句中也需要用虚拟语气. 这里所说的"特定的名词从句", 是指这样的名词从句中均要含有特定的标志词, 这些标志词可用来表示愿望, 建议, 命令, 请求或意志等语气
名词从句虚拟句的谓语变化的形式只有一条规律, 那就是: 名词从句虚拟句无论其主句的谓语动词是何种形式, 从句的谓语形式均为"should动词原形", 其中should可以省去. 这里特别要提醒读者注意: 不是用would, 而是用should
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在下列词的宾语从句中
ask (要求, 请求), advise, beg, command, demand, decide, deserve, desire, determine, insist, move (动议, 提议), order, prefer, propose, require, recommend, request, suggest和urge等
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在it is+形容词/过去分词/特定的名词+that的主语从句中
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形容词
astonishing, amazing, advisable, appropriate, crucial, desirable, essential, important, imperative, keen, necessary, natural, normal, odd, proper, preferable, strange, sorry, shocked, surprising, urgent, unusual和vital等
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过去分词
decided, desired, demanded, ordered, requested, required, recommended和 suggested
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特定名词
advice, decision, desire, demand, suggestion, motion, pray, resolution, wish, preference, proposal, recommendation, requirement, idea和order
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在上述名词的表语从句和同位语从句中
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在wish 后面的宾语从句中
- 对过去的虚拟 (had done)(would/could have done): I wish I had not attended that party.
- 对现在的虚拟 did: I wish I were a little younger.
- 对将来的虚拟 would/could do: I wish he could explain what he means.
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在if only感叹句中
If only表示"但愿""要是...就好了", 其用法和wish基本相同, 可表示对现在, 过去和将来的虚拟, 只是比wish具有更强烈的感情色彩
If only the rain would stop.
If only I were taller.
If he had only followed your advice.
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在as if/as though引导的从句中
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as if did 表示与现在事实相反或对现在情况有所怀疑, 谓语用过去时
I really don’t care for the way you’re speaking to me. It seems as if you were my father.
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as if had done 表示与过去事实相反, 谓语用过去完成时
We have not seen each other for ten solid years, but when we encountered on the street that day, we were still so affectionate that it seemed as if not a single day had gone by.
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在it is (high) time (that)从句中
该句型表示"该是做什么事的时候了", 含有"晚了一点"的意思, 从句中用过去时
Don’t dawdle away your youth any more. It is time you thought about your future.
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在would rather, would (just) as soon, would sooner, would prefer等从句中
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would rather do sth
would rather的后面接动词原形, 可以表示将来或现在的事件, 意指"主语宁愿自己做某事"
He would rather stay at home than go to the cinema tonight.
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would rather have done sth
这是would rather后面接动词完成式的用法, 表示过去的事件, 意指"某人宁愿自己过去做了某事, 但实际上没有做", 因此, 具有过去虚拟的意味, 如同过去虚拟条件主句的谓语形式
I took Sally to the cinema last night, but I would rather have been there alone.
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would rather sb. did
这是would rather后面接从句的用法, 意指"主语宁愿让另一个人做某事". 这里从句的谓语用一般过去式, 但表示的是现在或将来的事件, 如同现在虚拟条件从句的谓语形式
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would rather sb. have done sth
I’d just as soon you didn’t speak rudely to her. 我希望你不要那么粗鲁地对她说话
I’d as soon you hadn’t spoken rudely to her. 我希望你当时没有那么粗鲁地对她说话
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英文时态的构成: 四时四态
Tense/Aspect 一般 Simple 进行 Continous 完成 Perfect 完成进行 Perfect Continous 过去 Past Past simple Past continous Past perfect Past perfect continous 现在 Present Present Simple Present continous Present perfect Present perfect continous 将来 Future Future simple Future continous Future perfect Future perfect continous 过去将来 Past Future Past future simple Past future continous Past future perfect Past future perfect continous -
时态学习技巧
- 英语的"时态"是由"时"和"态"两个不同的概念组成的. 共有四个时间和四个体态, 因此, 英语共有16种时态
- 复杂的英文时态, 其实就来自下面这个谓语公式
- 学习英语的时态, 除了要正确地掌握时态的构成外, 重点是理解每一种时态的核心含义
- 学习时态, 必须与谓语动词的特点结合起来, 比如动作与状态的区分, 延续动作与短暂动作的区分, 这些就是所谓的"动词体(lexical aspect)"
一般现在时本质的思维特征是: 表示从过去到现在直至将来的一段时间内发生的动作(action)或存在的状态(state). 也就是说, 这些动作或状态的发生不限于某个特定的时间, 它们可发生于任何时间, 包括现在, 过去和将来, 这一段时间可以近乎无限长(如表示客观真理), 也可以是人们生活中的一段时间(如人们的习惯活动). 因此, 一般现在时态通常被描述为有两种基本用法: 表示客观真理, 以及表示习惯活动. 具体来说, 我们可用一般现在时来表示:
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表示普遍的事实或真理(expressing a general truth)
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表示重复活动(expressing a regularly occurring event)
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习惯性的动作(action)
He ofen goes to the gym.
I go to the gym twice a week.
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习惯性的状态(state)
I like rice for dinner.
He is always late.
He always goes to school by bike.
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一般现在时表示正在发生的动作
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一般现在时态用在以there或here开头的句子中, 表示目前的短暂动作
Here comes your wife.
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表示现在瞬间的动作(instant actions)
这个瞬间动作是说话人在说话的同时即刻发生的. 这只适用于表达动作的动词, 表示对一些动作的解说, 比如: 球赛解说, 剧情介绍, 解释自己正在做的事情, 给别人一边说一边做的示范动作等等
The woman is a spy, now she enters the room, opens the drawer, takes out a pistol and slips it into her pocket.
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一般现在时表示将来发生的动作
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用在条件状语从句和时间状语从句中
主要用在条件状语从句(if和unless)和时间状语从句(when, as soon as, before和after等)中, 表示将来的动作
Please let me know when he comes back.
What are you going to do when you leave school?
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在谈到未来的计划和时间安排表的时候, 表示将来的动作
此时句中的动词往往是表示短暂性动作的动词, 如go, come, leave, start和move等
The train starts at 2 o'clock. 火车两点钟开
We move next week.
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在从句中表示将来的动作, 此时主句往往用了一个将来时
I will reward the person who finds my lost kitten
I will give the booklet to whoever asks for it.
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一般现在时表示过去发生的动作
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表示死者的理论, 著作等
R. Descartes says that the reading of all good books is like a conversation with the finest men of past centuries.
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引用书刊, 报纸, 通知或新近收到的信件的内容时
The newspaper reads, "The criminal who killed eight women has been executed."
The sign on the washing machine says, "out of order".
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一般现在时代指现在完成时
在口语中, 可以用一般现在时代指现在完成时. 能这样使用的动词不多, 通常有: hear, find, see, learn, tell和read等
I am(=have been) informed that you have been there. 有人告诉我, 你去过那里
I hear(=have heard) that he has left Beijing. 我听说他已经离开北京了
I hear(=have heard) you're getting married. 我听说你要结婚了
I hear(=have heard) you've been busy lately. 我听说你最近很忙
San Francisco was. 旧金山已成为过去
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基本用法一: 过去发生的短暂动作或状态
一般过去时常表示在过去某一个特定的时间所发生的动作或存在的状态, 此时常和表示过去的特定的时间状语连用. 这些时间状语有: yesterday, yesterday evening, last night, the night before last(前天晚上), last year, last spring(去年春天)以及three days/months/years ago等等. 注意, 这些时间状语之前不需加介词, 比如不能说: at last night*, in last year或in three years ago等等
I saw him in the library yesterday morning. 我昨天早上在图书馆看到他了
I began to learn English ten years ago. 我10年以前开始学习英语
I bought this computer three years ago. 我3年以前买的这台电脑
上述例子均表示在过去某一特定的时间点 (a specific point of time in the past) 发生的动作或状态
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基本用法二: 过去发生的重复或延续活动
I slept for eight hours last night.
I wrote a letter once a week to my family when I was in my first college year.
用法比较: 一般过去时和现在完成时用于'for+时间段'的区别
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一般过去时与"for+时间段"连用, 表示动作在过去已经结束, 并没有延续到现在; 而现在完成时与"for+时间段"连用, 则表明动作延续到现在, 并且还有可能延续下去
She lived in our town for three years. 她在我们小镇生活过三年(但现在不在这里)
She has lived in our town for three years. 她在我们小镇已经生活了三年(现在还在这里)
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口语用法: 'I don't know' or 'I didn't know'?
A: Do you see the person with loose pants and long hair? Is it a boy or girl?
B: A girl. She is my daughter.
A: Oh, please forgive me. I didn't know you were her mother.
A说我不知道的时候其实他已经知道了, 因为B已经告诉他She is my daughter.了, 也就是说, 他的真正意思应该是我刚才不知道
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口语用法: 礼貌表达
I woundered if you could help me.
I was woundering if you could possibly lend me your car for this evening?
表示将来时态的will do只是情态动词的一种用法而已, 因此表示将来的事件往往是与各种情态意义联系在一起的. 比如: 预测某事将会发生, 计划将来做某事, 或表示愿意去做某事. 因此, 对于将来时态的学习, 理解以下三个概念是至关重要的:
- 预测(prediction): 表示说话人认为将来会发生某件事
- 事先计划(future plan): 表示说话人在头脑里已经做出决定将来要做某件事
- 意愿(willingness): 表示说话人既不是预计某事将会发生, 也不是预先经过考虑决定将做某事, 而是在说话的时刻立即做出决断表明他将去做某事
本节讨论了will和be going to表示预测时的细微差别. 这种差别主要体现在下面三个方面:
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用be going to特别意指根据目前的明显迹象来推断某件事将要发生(We can use "be going to" for a strong prediction based on present conditions.); 而will则只是表明说话人认为或相信某件事将要发生
- possibility: be going to > will
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be going to 通常用来表示说话人预期所说的事件马上或在相当近的将来就要发生; 而will所表示的动作发生的时间可近可远. 此外, be going to还往往表示当前已有迹象表明说话者无力控制的即将发生的行为, 这显然与上述两点密切相关
- time distance: will > be going to
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在表示"预测"时, will的语气比be going to显得正式
- formality: will > be going to
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但二者更大的区别体现在, be going to不能像will那样表示迅速的, 当机立断的决定, 我们将在下一节中对此进行详细的讨论
- instancy: will > be going to
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be going to表示"计划", 需要用"人"作主语
只有"人"才能有主观的思维意识去对将来的行为做出"计划打算", 因此, be going to的这个用法主要是用于人称主语(person subject), 而不可能用于非人称主语(non-person subject). 但在表示"预测"时, 主语可能是人称, 也可能是非人称. 换句话说, 如果是非人称主语, 那be going to不会是表示"计划打算", 而是表示"推测"
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be going to可以表示"决心", 具有强烈的感情色彩
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will表示"意愿", 一个当机立断的决定(spontaneous decision)
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比较: will表示"意愿"和be going to表示"打算"
- be going to表示说话人对未来行动的计划或打算, 通常是经过事先考虑并含有已经为这一行动做了某些准备的意思 (planned)
- will表示意愿, 表示在说话的时刻立即做出决定将去做某事, 事先并没有经过考虑, 更没有为这一活动做出事先的准备 (unplanned)
| Prediction | Will, be going to | person or non-person subject |
|---|---|---|
| Plan | be going to | person subject |
| Willingness | Will | person subjecct |
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必须带有表示将来的时间状语
I'm goint out next Sunday.
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必须是人称主语
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与一般现在时表示将来的区别
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一般现在时要比现在进行时听起来更正式, 个人主观色彩要淡些. 请比较:
I am leaving tonight. vs I leave tonight.
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如果是一系列预定的将来的安排, 比如旅游行程安排, 用进行时态显得较累赘, 而用一般时态则较简洁
We leave Beijing at 9: 00 tomorrow morning, arrive in Kunming around 12: 00 and then we tour the World Horti-Expo Garden.
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用be going to表示计划与进行时态表示计划的区别
be doing表达的将来计划要比be going to的计划更确定(more definite)
possibility: be doing > be going to
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be to do
They are to go on a strike on July 8th.
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be about to do
这一结构用来表示即将发生的动作 (比如通常在5分钟之内就会发生), 意思是正要, 马上就要
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be on the point/verge/brink/eve of doing
这一结构与be about to do的意思差不多, 但其动作发生的时间比be about to do还要快一些
He was on the point of killing himself when she stopped into this room.
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进行时态的构成
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进行时态的意义
表示正在发生的动作. 具体来说, 进行时是强调在某个特定的 (现在, 过去或将来) 时间点, 某项活动正在发生
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进行时态的使用语境
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action happening exactly now
A: What are you doing?
B: I'm doing my laundry.
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action happening around now
A: What are you doing these days?
B: I'm taking Prof.Zhang's grammer course in New Oriental School.
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用于表示'改变'的动词, 强调'逐渐变化'的过程
常见的表示"改变"的动词有: change, come, get, become, grow和deteriorate(恶化)等
It's gettingn dark.
My dream is coming true.
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用于强烈的感情色彩的表达
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表示将来确定的安排
现在进行时在口语中还经常用来表示将来的动作 (action in the future), 此时现在进行时是表示在说话之前就确定的, 计划好的将来的安排 (a firm plan or program before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.)
What are you doing for New Year's Eve? Are you going to the Tyler's party?
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与always等连用, 表示多次重复, 且含有感情色彩
He's always pulling my leg.
He's continually asking me for money.
动作的长短与时态有如此密切的关系:
- 长动作 + 短动作: 长动作用过去进行时, 短动作用一般过去时
- 长动作 + 长动作: 都用过去进行时
- 短动作 + 短动作: 都用一般过去时
用法:
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常见用法: 用来设置故事的背景
James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box...
when的后面接短动作, 用一般过去时 (when+short action, simple past tense), 或者接长动作, 用过去进行时 (when+long action, past continuous tense)
while的后面只能接长动作, 用过去进行时 (while+long action, past continuous tense)
I was walking past the car when it exploded.
The car exploded when I was walking past it.
The car exploded while I was walking past it.
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少见用法: 两个过去同时在持续的动作
While I was studying in my dorm, my roomates were talking loudly with their friends.
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典型用法: 描述一件过去特定时刻正在发生的事情
I was discussing my thesis with director at this time last night.
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口语用法: 表示委婉的请求或建议
这时并不表示过去时间的动作. 这尤其适用于表示态度的动词, 如wonder, hope和think等, 这些动词用过去进行时 (was wondering) 或现在进行时 (is wondering), 均表示现在的一种愿望或态度, 给人一种探询式的, 犹豫不决的印象, 因而显得很礼貌
I was wondering if you'd like to lend me your car.
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典型用法: 将来某一特定时刻正在持续的事
Don't telephone me after eight tomorrow - I'll be having a meeting.
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口语用法: 将来计划好的事
Professor Smith will be giving a lecture on American literature tomorrow evening.
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少见用法: 表示背景动作-提供另外一个短动作发生的事件背景
They probably will be watching TV when we get there.
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难点用法1: 用在疑问句中, 表示客气地询问
How will you pay for this?
How will you be paying for this?
用将来进行时来礼貌地询问, 显得比一般将来时will do更委婉客气. 这是因为will be doing常表示很客观地询问事实, 并不想干涉对方的决定; 而will do往往带有各种感情色彩, 如请求, 命令, 指示, 质问甚至威胁等等
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难点用法2: 用来表示客观的将来, 以避免与表示'意愿'的will do混淆
It's already 10 clock. I guess Bob and Amy won't be coming to the party.
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won't be coming是想强调鲍勃和埃米可能是因为其他事情耽误了而来不了这一客观事实, 而不是主观意愿上的不愿来
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won't do的意思往往相当于refuse to do, 表示拒绝做, 不愿意做. 所以, 对于这句话, 人们一般会理解为鲍勃和埃米不愿意来参加聚会
will可以用来表示意愿 (willingness) 和意图 (intention) 等情态语义, 所以will do往往表示主观意愿, 如will do有蓄意为之的含义, 而won't do则有不愿意为之的含义. 但将来进行时态will be doing则是表示客观的将来时间, 侧重于对将来事件的客观陈述, 表示在正常情况下预计要发生的事件, 而不表达个人意图. 总而言之, will be doing较客观, will do较主观, 所以我们用will be doing来表示客观的将来时间, 以避免与表示主观意愿的will do混淆
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进行动作的核心意义在于表示:
- 事件具有持续性 (ongoing): 进行时态首先表示的是一个事件或活动在某个特定的时间正在持续
- 事件具有短暂性 (temporary): 即表明事件的持续时间是有限的. 如果是无限的, 即表达一个长期的, 恒久的含义, 那么就该用一般现在时态了
- 事件未完成 (incomplete): 进行体既然强调动作的持续性, 那么就表明这个动作还没有结束
根据动词词义的特点, 我们可以把动词分为静态动词 (stative verb) 和动态动词 (dynamic verb) . 动态动词又可以进一步分为短暂动词 (punctual verb) 和延续动词 (durative verb) . 因此, 从词义的角度, 我们可以把动词分为静态动词, 短暂动词和延续动词
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静态动词
静态动词与变化无关, 它们描述的是一个稳定的状况 (situations that are relatively constant over time), 这种状况会或长或短地持续下去
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短暂动词
短暂动词往往表示一个不能持续的或持续时间极短的动作 (acts which do not extend through time), 往往与**时间点 (point in time) **有联系
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延续动词
与短暂动词相对, 延续动词表示一个可以持续的活动或过程 (activities or processes), 用来描述一个可以延续的场景 (describe situations that typically extend through time)
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短暂动词与进行时态
虽然短暂动词不具有延续性, 或者说其延续性较差, 这似乎与进行体的核心意义动作有限的延续性相矛盾. 但是短暂动词可以与进行体连用, 不过意思会有所改变. 进行体赋予短暂动词**反复 (repetition) **的意义. 具体来说, 短暂动词用于进行时态, 往往表示的是一系列重复的动作, 而不是一个单一动作
He is nodding his head in agreement. 他不断地点头表示同意
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静态动词与进行时态
很多静态动词有多种意义: 有的是表示静态意义而不能用于进行体; 有的是用于非静态意义而转化为动态动词, 从而可以用于进行时态. 所以, 确切地说, 英语中没有静态动词, 而只有静态意义的动词. 我们说某些动词是静态动词, 主要是因为这些动词的典型意义是表示静态的, 但它们也可能具有其他的动态意义. 从这个意义上来说, 我们必须从静态意义而非静态动词的角度去分析考虑进行体的使用限制. 换句话说, 不能用于进行体的是静态意义或者说是静态意义的动词, 而非静态动词
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施动与受动
谓语动作是主语有意识地发出的, 即句子的主语是施动者, 此时谓语一般都可以用进行时态. 反之, 如果主语并非有意识地发出谓语动作, 而只是被动的接受者即受动者, 此时谓语一般都不能用进行时态. 因为进行时态主要只用于有意识的动作. 因此在英文中, 一些表示无意识的, 自发的动作 (spontaneous action) 的动词, 如人们的心理活动 (know, understand和believe等), 感情状态 (like, love和hate等) 以及其他静态动词, 均不能用于进行时态
The chef is tasting the soup.
And it tasts good.
尝 词性 词义 能否与进行时态搭配 taste 系动词 (linking verb) 表示某个食物"吃起来"怎么样 不能用于进行时态 taste 表示结果的及物动词 (vt) 指"尝到味道", 不是主语有意识地发出的动作, 而是状态 不能用于进行时态 taste 表示过程的及物动词 (vi) 指"品尝", 是主语有意识的动作 能用于进行时态 闻 词性 词义 能否与进行时态搭配 smell 系动词 (linking verb) 表示某个食物"闻起来"怎么样 不能用于进行时态 smell 表示结果的及物动词 (vt) 指"闻到味道", 不是主语有意识地发出的动作, 而是状态 不能用于进行时态 smell 表示过程的及物动词 (vi) 指"闻", 是主语有意识的动作 能用于进行时态 看 词性 词义 能否与进行时态搭配 look 系动词 (linking verb) 表示某个事物"看起来"怎么样 不能用于进行时态 see 表示结果的及物动词 (vt) 指"看到", 不是主语有意识地发出的动作, 而是状态 不能用于进行时态 look 表示过程的及物动词 (vi) 指"看", 是主语有意识的动作 能用于进行时态 听 词性 词义 能否与进行时态搭配 sound 系动词 (linking verb) 表示某个事物"听起来"怎么样 不能用于进行时态 hear 表示结果的及物动词 (vt) 指"听到", 不是主语有意识地发出的动作, 而是状态 不能用于进行时态 listen 表示过程的及物动词 (vi) 指"听", 是主语有意识的动作 能用于进行时态 -
特殊含义总结
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加强动词所表达的感情
I'm loving it. 我就喜欢他
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通过强调随时间的流逝而发生的程度上的变化, 来表明状态的变化
I'm understanding less and less about life, the older I get. 我年龄越大, 对生活就越发不能理解了
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强调有意识的参与
What we are seeing is a red dwarf star. 我们现在看到的是一颗红矮星
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表明生动性
One night in the middle of the night, I'm hearing dripping. 在一天半夜里, 我听到滴水声
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使批评变得缓和
I like the first piano notes, but I'm not liking where the strings come in.
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与一般性描述不同, 进行时态表示当前的行为
He's being rude. 他现在的样子显得很粗鲁
He's rude. 他这人一向很粗鲁
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延续状态(be + adj)与进行时态
正如动词可以有静态与动态之分一样, 英文中的形容词也可分为静态形容词 (stative adjective) 和动态形容词 (dynamic adjective):
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静态形容词: 是指某一事物或现象所具有的长时期内难以自然改变的性质特征或状态. 英文中的形容词主要是这样的静态形容词, 如: tall, red, long, big, beautiful和important等
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动态形容词: 是指某一事物或现象所具有的随时可以被改变的性质特征或状态. 这些形容词主要是用来描写人的性格特征的, 最常用的有: brave, calm, careful, careless, clever, cruel, foolish, friendly, funny, impatient, lazy, kind, naughty, nice, noisy, patient, polite, rude, shy, silly, stubborn和stupid等
静态形容词不能用于进行时态. 动态形容词可以用于进行时态, 来描述主语的一个暂时的性质状态或特征, 而非其本身所固有的或持久的特征. 此时主语是施动者, 所以有时表示主语有意如此的含义:
- He is being rude. being rude就像一个进行的动作一样, 表示主语he在说话时刻的暂时的表现. 也许他一般情况下并不粗鲁 (rude), 只是此时此刻表现得很粗鲁, 即粗鲁并不是他一贯的性格特点
- He is rude. 一般时态is rude则表示主语he惯有的性格
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完成时态的本质思维或者说其核心意义就是用来表示回顾(retrospect). 既然是"回顾", 就必然要涉及两个时间点, 即从一个时间点回顾到另外一个时间点, 因此完成时态必定涉及前后两个时间
所谓"延续事件", 是指"一个开始于过去的动作或状态(action or state)一直延续到现在", 这是现在完成时态最基本, 也是最容易理解的意义和用法. 请
本节讨论了现在完成时态的一个最简单的思维规律, 即表示一个延续事件. 这种延续性思维必须有两个条件:
- 一是谓语动词必须是表示延续的, 如延续性动词或延续状态
- 二是必须接有延续性的时间状语, 才能表示延续到现在的活动
- 没有这样的时间状语则表示一个完成了的活动, 而没有延续到现在
现在完成时态具有"将来可重复性", 而一般过去时态不具有"将来可重复性". 这是判断用现在完成时态还是用一般过去时态的重要原则, 我称这个原则为可重复性原则(Principle of Repeatability)
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可重复原则是现在完成时态的一条根本原则
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可重复原则与将来的时间有关
现在完成时是一定要与现在发生联系的, 而"现在"又处在过去与将来的临界位置, 是一个随时会成为过去的动态时刻, 所以要想保证与"现在"有联系, 现在完成时态往往会把"现在"延伸至"将来". 也就是说, 现在完成时态所表达的动作或状态往往都含有持续或重复到将来某一个时间点的意味, 即现在完成时与将来的时间有关, 也就是我这里说的"将来可重复性"原则. 现在完成时态可以说是以现在的时间为参照来谈一个可以持续或重复到将来的事件
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How many people have entered for the race?
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How many people entered for the race?
在例句1)中, 完成时态表达了一个重复活动, 真正的含义是"到目前为止有多少人报名参加这个比赛". "在例句2)中, 用一般过去时态表明这个比赛已经结束了, 而不是一个将来事件. 该句真正的意思是"有多少人报名参加了那次比赛"
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可重复性原则与过去时间
在英文中, 确定的过去时间状语(如yesterday和last night)不能用于现在完成时态, 这可以用可重复原则来解释. 因为过去时间状语表明事件在过去已经完成而无法延续或重复到现在及未来, 这就违背了完成时态的将来可重复性原则, 故现在完成时不能使用确定的过去时间状语
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可重复性原则与现在时间
所谓现在时间, 是指诸如today, this week和this year等这样的时间状语. 这样的时间状语一般都会用于现在完成时态, 如果有特殊的语境信息表明某个事件无法继续延续或重复到现在及将来, 就用一般过去时. 换句话说, 现在时间可以用于现在完成时态或一般过去时态
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可重复性原则与一般时间
所谓一般时间, 是指诸如in the morning这样不确定是现在还是过去的时间
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可重复性原则与地点表达
有时, 地点状语起着表明说话时间的作用, 因为地点的转化总是伴随着时间的变化. 请比较例句:
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In my hometown, I had five jobs.
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In this city, I have had two jobs.
在例句1)中, 地点状语in my hometown表明"我"现在人不在老家, 这个地点状语暗含了过去的时间, 所以该句要用一般过去时态, 该事件不具有可重复性
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可重复性原则与去世的人的情况
一般来说, 谈到有关去世的人的情况, 往往都是无法持续和重复的, 即不具有将来可重复性, 所以, 涉及去世的人的句子通常要用一般过去时态
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可重复性原则与特定语境
有时, 这种"超语言信息"的背景知识并不是一个众所周知的常识, 而只是交际双方共有知识(shared knowledge)的一部分, 此时到底用现在完成时态还是一般过去时态, 则取决于具体语境. 如果有语言外的信息决定了某一活动不再延续重复, 就要用一般过去时态
"延续事件"及"重复事件"两种完成时, 单从句子的字面即可理解其意. 而"单一事件"完成时表示的"对现在有影响", 从句子的字面本身是反映不出来的, 而是与真实的说话的语境密切相关, 往往表现出一种"言外之意"单一事件"完成时从句子的字面看不出"影响", 须结合上下文的语境方能理解"对现在的影响", 体会言外之意
"过去事件"中的这个"过去"应该有离现在较近和较远之分. 因为, 从时间的角度来看, "过去事件"是表示"到目前为止的过去任何某一时间点发生的事件", 这个"过去任何某一时间点"当然是不确定的, 因此可以指离现在很近的过去, 也可以是离现在较远的过去. 于是, "单一事件"的完成时既可以表示发生在最近的动作, 也可以表示发生在较远的过去的动作, 具体情况要看上下文的语境
这里讨论的是"单一事件"的现在完成时态用于"近的过去"所表达的意义和用法, 即用来表示较近的过去: 谈论热点新闻, 或某事件的直接后果. 同时, 要注意这样的时态搭配规律: 现在完成时提起话题, 过去时继续详谈内容, 简言之就是"现在完成时+一般过去时"
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表示过去经历的现在完成时
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时态搭配一: 现在完成时+一般过去时
完成时询问对方过去的经历, 然后用一般过去时继续详谈这个经历的具体情况(The present perfect often serves to introduce a topic, which in turn becomes a definite event and is talked about using the past tense.)
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时态搭配二: 一般过去时+现在完成时
用一般过去时讲述自己过去的经历, 然后用现在完成时探询对方是否有相似的经历, 以期望获得更多的理解或共鸣
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时态搭配三: 一般现在时+现在完成时
如果说话人谈到的是一般常见的经历, 而不是指某一次具体的过去的经历, 那么他会用一般现在时态, 然后接一个现在完成时态, 来探寻听话者/读者是否有过类似的经历
本小节讲的是"单一事件"的完成时用于"远的过去", 往往表示人们过去曾经的经历. 在口语中, 现在完成时态有时会和一般过去时搭配使用, 说话者先用一般过去时讲述过去的经历, 然后用现在完成时探询对方是否有相似的经历, 即为"一般过去+现在完成(远的过去意义)". 同时请注意, 这不同于"现在完成(通常是近的过去意义)+一般过去"
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"单一事件"完成时的肯定句不与持续的时间状语连用
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"单一事件"完成时的否定句表示状态意义, 可与持续的时间状语连用
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"单一事件"完成时常与不确定的时间状语连用
- 较远的过去: ever(英文意思是any time between the past and the present, 表示"曾经", 一般指较远的过去时间)和before
- 较近的过去: yet, already, lately和recently
- 更近的过去: just, 表示"刚刚", 常与完成时态连用"
延续事件与单一事件的联系是: 不带有持续的时间状语的延续事件立即变成了单一事件中的"远的过去"事件 - 表示过去的经历
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重复事件与"远的过去"单一事件
重复事件与"远的过去"单一事件的关系体现在两个方面:
- 一是"远的过去"单一事件相当于一个"隐性"的重复事件, 只需添加一个表示次数的重复标示就可以把它变成"显性"重复事件, 即一个真正意义上的重复事件
- 另一方面, 用现在完成时来谈论过去的经历时, 这个经历一定得是具有可重复性的
因此, 可以把单一事件完成时表示"过去经历"的用法包含在"重复事件"完成时的思维里. 由此可以把"重复事件"定义为: 到目前为止的一个时间段内, 某个事件至少发生过一次(at least one occurrence)
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重复事件与"近的过去"单一事件
上面把"重复事件"定义为: 到目前为止的一个时间段内, 某个事件至少发生过一次. 但真正意义上的重复事件应该是发生过多次的. 在这多次重复的活动当中, 如果要明确指出是"离现在最近的一次活动(the latest occurrence or the occurrence nearest to now)", 那么这就变成了"近的过去"单一事件了. 于是, 重复事件与"近的过去"单一事件产生了密切联系
He has been fired.(歧义)
He has been fired before.
He has just been fired.
He has been fired three times so far.
规律一: 在英语中, "动作表达"的完成时态在意思上相当于"状态表达"的一般现在时态. 这里的动作往往指的是短暂动作, 即表示一个"近的过去"单一事件
这是英文里很常见的一个语言表达现象, 即用最近发生的动作的"现在完成时态"来表达现在的状态
规律二: 在英语中, "动作表达"的完成时态强调最近发生的事件, 而"状态表达"的完成时态强调"较远的过去"经历
"最高级+名词+that 从句+现在完成时谓语"
在形容词最高级修饰的名词后面若接有一个that从句, 此时从句的谓语要用现在完成时态
过去完成时态是一个不能独立存在的时态, 它必须依附于一个一般过去时态, 也就是说, 要先有一般过去时态, 才可能有过去完成时态
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表示"非真实"的过去
主要是指intend, mean, hope, want, plan, suppose, expect, think, propose和wish等动词用于过去完成时, 可表示过去未能实现的计划, 设想, 意图或希望等
I had intended to watch just one program, but somehow I couldn’t make myself switch off the TV.
I had intended to see you, but I was busy.
I had planned to go shopping with you, but my mother came to see me just when I was about to go.
She had hoped that he would come to date her, but he didn’t show up.
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用于最高级句型
这一点完全类似于我们在5.8节中讨论过的现在完成时的用法, 即用在"It was the+序数词(first, second...) "或"最高级+名词+that从句"句型中
两个或两个以上相继发生的动作, 用and或but按动作发生的先后顺序连接, 此时要用一般过去时, 而不用过去完成时. 过去完成时则强调主语在过去的某一时刻"回顾"更早的动作. 具体来说, 如果在谈论过去某一事件时, 又想到在这之前已发生的某事, 就要用过去完成时态
- He served in the army for ten years; then retired and married. His children are now at school.
- He had served in the army for ten years; then he retired and married. His children were now at school.
在表示两个相继发生的动作时, 用过去完成时可以表示一个动作完成以后, 另一个动作才开始发生, 从而使得两个动作相互独立, 彼此脱离开来. 用一般过去时, 则可能表示一个动作"导致"另一个动作的发生, 或两个动作之间有因果关系
- When I had opened all the windows, I sat down and had a cup of tea.
被描述的事件开始于现在之前, 而且是有限地(不会无限期地)持续下去. 简言之, 完成进行时的核心含义是表示"有限的延续性"
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延续事件概述
完成进行时兼备"完成体"和"进行体"两种时体所反映的意义. 所以, 在讨论上述这四类延续事件的特点时, 还要考察它们是更接近现在完成时还是更接近现在进行时
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延续事件一: 长期在延续的事件
这些现在完成进行时表达的都是在相当长的一个时间段内(比如: for 30 years)持续的一般性活动. 说它们是"一般性活动", 是因为这些活动并不具有很强的"正在进行"的动作的意味, 或者说这些活动在说话的时刻一般并不正在持续. 这些活动类似于一个持续的状态, 更具有状态的意义, 而没有多少动作的意义. 所以, 现在完成进行时的这一用法与"现在进行时态"的关系较远, 而与"现在完成时态"的关系更近, 完全类似于现在完成时所表达的"延续事件"的意义
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延续事件二: 近期在延续的事件
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延续事件三: 在说话时刻仍在延续的事件
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延续事件四: 在说话时刻之前在延续的事件(即刚刚在延续的事件)
思维总结:
- 表示"长期在延续的事件"的现在完成进行时与现在进行时态的关系较远, 而与现在完成时态的关系更近, 完全类似于现在完成时所表达的"延续事件"的意义
- 表示"近期在延续的事件"的现在完成进行时与现在进行时态的关系更密切, 完全类似于现在进行时所表示的"一个在近期持续的一般性活动"的意义
- 表示"在说话时刻仍在延续的事件"的现在完成进行时与现在进行时态的意义很接近, 因为二者都表示这个活动在说话的时刻仍然在进行
- 表示"刚刚在延续的事件"的现在完成进行时与现在完成时态的关系更接近, 类似于完成时表示的"单一事件". 与现在进行时的关系较远, 因为现在进行时没有表示事件在说话时刻已经结束的用法
二者有三个共同点:
- 二者都表示一个事件在说话的时刻已经结束
- 二者都伴随有现在清晰可见的后果
- 二者都不接持续性的时间状语. 不过, 需要注意的是, 现在完成进行时可以接持续的时间状语, 但意思往往会不同; 而现在完成时"单一事件"的用法是不能接持续的时间状语的
- My hands are dirty. I’ve been cleaning the car.
- I’ve just cleaned the car 从这个例句可以得出二者的两点区别:
- 现在完成进行时强调活动本身的持续性(emphasis on duration); 现在完成时强调活动的结果, 或者说强调活动的成果(emphasis on achievement)
- 从谓语动词的延续性的角度来看, 现在完成进行时的"刚刚在延续的事件"的用法所采用的动词一定都是延续性动词, 以表示一个延续活动; 现在完成时的"单一事件"的用法所采用的动词都是短暂动词, 或者用作表达短暂性的动词, 不表示一个延续活动. 所以, 现在完成进行时可以接持续的时间状语, 但意思往往会不同; 而现在完成时"单一事件"的用法是不能接持续的时间状语的. 这就证明二者在谓语动词的延续性方面有差别
现在完成进行时会强烈暗示动作会继续持续下去; 而现在完成时则往往表示动作有可能会持续下去
完成进行时表示的"刚刚在延续的事件"与完成时的"单一事件"的用法类似, 因为: 二者都表示一个事件在说话的时刻已经结束; 都伴随有现在清晰可见的后果; 二者一般都不接持续性的时间状语. 二者最大的区别在于谓语动词的延续性. 现在完成进行时的"刚刚在延续的事件"的用法所采用的动词一定都是延续性动词, 以表示一个延续活动; 现在完成时的"单一事件"的用法所采用的动词都是短暂动词, 不表示延续活动
二者在表示"延续事件"方面最大的区别在于持续的时间状语. 一方面, 在带有持续的时间状语时, 两种时态几乎没有多大区别, 都表示一个开始于过去的动作一直延续到现在. 另一方面, 如果没有持续时间状语, 完成时则不表示延续至今的事件, 而表示一个在过去完成了的事件(即表示"单一事件"). 但是, 现在完成进行时在没有持续的时间状语的情况下, 依然可以表示延续至今的事件. 由此可见, 完成进行时比完成时更强调活动本身的持续性
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重复事件一: 短暂动词
用短暂动词(如come)的完成进行时(如have been coming)来表示到目前为止的一段时间内重复发生的动作
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重复事件二: 有限延续动词
有限延续动词"用于完成进行时态, 若接表达较长时间的状语表示"重复活动", 若接表达较短时间的状语则表示"延续活动"
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思维总结
本节讨论了完成进行时如何表示"重复事件". 这一用法主要适用于两类动词: 短暂动词和有限延续动词. 不适合无限延续动词
首先, 对于短暂动词来说, 它用于现在完成进行时往往表示重复事件. 具体来说, 就是表示到目前为止的一段时间内重复发生的某一活动(a repeated activity, a habitual action in a period of time up to the present). 需要注意的是, 此时句子的谓语往往都是短暂动词, 如果是延续动词则可能表示一个延续的活动. 比如本节开头的那个句子, 若将其谓语come改为延续动词live, 说成"I have been living in Beijing for 14 years.", 则表示一个延续的living活动, 意思是"我在北京生活了14年了". 简言之, 短暂动词用于完成进行时, 均表示一个"重复活动"
其次, 对于有限延续动词来说, 它用于完成进行时要分为两种情况: 若接表达较长时间的状语表示"重复活动", 若接表达较短时间的状语则表示"延续活动"
再次, 无限延续动词用于完成进行时, 不论其所接时间状语表达时间的长短, 都表示"延续活动"
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比较三: 重复动作的分割性
完成进行时具有进行时的特点, 而进行时强调动作的持续性, 因此这一活动必须是连续不断的. 如果把动作分割开来看, 则违背了进行时态的核心意义 - 持续性, 所以不能用进行时态. 我们在下列两种情况下就会把动作分割开: 一是谈到在一段时间内一共做了多少件事情(比如说喝了五杯咖啡); 二是说明某件事发生的次数(比如下文中将要说到的去过三次洛杉矶). 因此, 这两种情形下都不能使用各种进行时态, 包括现在完成进行时
现在完成进行时的重复是"隐性"的, 是模糊的, 它的重复性是根据人们的实际经验体会出来的; 现在完成时的重复是"显性"的, 是明确的
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比较四: 短暂动词用于完成进行时来表示重复活动
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完成进行时的'重复事件'与一般现在时的'重复事件'
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思维总结
本节做了两个比较. 首先是比较了现在完成进行时的"重复事件"与现在完成时的"重复事件", 告诉读者二者的差别可以归纳为:
- 现在完成进行时的重复是"隐性"的, 是模糊的, 是不能说出具体次数的, 它的重复性只能是人们根据实际经验体会出来的; 现在完成时的重复是"显性"的, 是明确的, 往往是要明确说出次数的
- 还有要注意的就是, 短暂动词的完成进行时可以与持续的时间状语连用, 此时表示重复事件; 但是短暂动词的完成时不能与持续的时间状语连用
I run a mile every afternoon.
I’ve been running a mile every afternoon for the past month
其次, 比较了现在完成进行时的"重复事件"与一般现在时的"重复事件", 然后告诉读者: 现在完成进行时表示"重复事件"的一个重要概念就是: 到目前为止的一个时间段内重复的活动, 而当我们用一般现在时来谈一个重复活动时, 我们的头脑里没有这样的一个时间段的概念, 而只表示一种泛泛的日常习惯
完成进行时重在"进行(ongoing)", 即未完成(incomplete), 强调动作持续的过程(emphasis on duration); 完成时重在"完成", 即已完成(completed), 强调动作的结果或成就(emphasis on achievement)
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一 未完成与已完成
- I have been reading your grammar book. After I finish it, I’ll discuss some problems with you.
- I have read your grammar book and I have questions to ask you.
- 在例句1)中, 现在完成进行时表示read的动作未完成. 在例句2)中, 现在完成时表示read的动作已完成
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二 延续过程与成果
- How long have you been learning English?
- How many words have you learned?
- 在例句1)中, 询问学英语的持续时间, 强调活动的持续过程, 所以用现在完成进行时have been learning. 在例句2)中, 询问学会了多少单词, 强调学习的成果, 所以用现在完成时have learned
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三 感情色彩的不同
- 由于完成进行时更强调动作的延续性, 因而往往带有强烈的感情色彩, 较为口语化. 所以, 在口语中完成进行时使用得较为普遍. 而现在完成时则只是说明一个事实, 一种结果, 较为平铺直叙, 缺乏明显的感情色彩. 例如:
- A: Why are you so late? I’ve been waiting here for more than an hour!
- B: Sorry to have kept you waiting. But it has been a hectic day today. I’ve got a million things to attend to.
- 这里说话人A用了have been waiting的形式, 显得较为生气. 如果他说have waited则显得很平铺直叙, 只是简单地说明"等了一个多小时"这样的事实
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四 重复活动: 完成进行时强调持续, 不讲次数; 完成时强调成果, 讲次数
- I’ve been ironing my shirts this morning.
- I’ve ironed five shirts this morning.
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一 时(tense)与态(aspect)
谈到"时(tense)"的时候, 我们关心的是这个动作发生的时间, 即是在现在, 过去还是将来发生的. 谈到"态(aspect)"(也叫"体")的时候, 我们关心的则是这个动作是固定不变的还是动态变化的(fixed or changing); 这个动作是完成了的还是在延续的(complete or ongoing); 这个动作持续的时间是很短还是很长(lasting for only a moment or for a long time)
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二 语法体与动词体
对于上述"体(aspect)"方面的属性, 英语通过两方面来表达, 这也就是英语中的两类体:
一类是"语法体(grammatical aspect)", 就是读者熟悉的"进行体(continuous aspect)""完成体(perfect aspect)"和"完成进行体(perfect continuous aspect)"
另一类是"动词体(lexical aspect)", 这是用来标示动词词义本身所固有的特点(the inherent properties of the verb’s meaning)的. 在这方面, 英语把动词分为状态和动作(state and action), 又把动作分为短暂动作和延续动作(punctual and durative)等等
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三 完成进行时的意义
完成进行时态的具体用法相当于是语法体 - 有限持续性 - 与动词体 - 短暂动词, 有限延续动词和无限延续动词 - 相互作用之后的产物
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无限延续动词
无限延续动词(如live)用于现在完成进行时的时候, 只能表示一个延续事件
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有限延续动词
这样的动词往往是一些表示单一具体活动的动词, 比如repair这样的动词. 这样的动词非常典型地反映出完成进行时的"有限延续性"的特点, 因为这样的动词用于现在完成进行时, 若要表示延续事件时, 则只能接一个表达短暂时间的状语
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短暂动词
短暂动词与完成进行时"有限延续性"的含义发生作用后, 产生了重复事件的解释"
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四 完成进行时与完成时的意义比较
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延续事件
二者最大的区别在于持续的时间状语. 一方面, 在带有持续的时间状语时, 用两种时态几乎没有多大区别, 都表示开始于过去的动作一直延续到现在. 另一方面, 如果没有持续的时间状语, 则完成时不表示延续至今的事件, 而表示在过去完成了的事件(即表示"单一事件"中的过去经历). 但是, 现在完成进行时在没有持续的时间状语的情况下, 依然可以表示延续至今的事件. 由此可见, 完成进行时比完成时更强调活动本身的持续性
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重复事件
二者在表示重复事件时, 最大的区别就在于事件的可分割性(详见6.6节). 现在完成进行时表示重复活动时, 不能被分割开来, 即不能说出具体的次数. 它的重复性是根据人们的实际经验体会出来的. 而完成时表示的重复活动, 往往要说出具体的次数. 因此, 可以这样来看二者的差别: 现在完成进行时的重复是"隐性"的, 是模糊的; 现在完成时的重复是"显性"的, 是明确的
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单一事件
二者最大的区别在谓语动词的延续性方面. 现在完成进行时"刚刚在延续的事件"的用法所采用的动词一定都是延续性动词, 以表示一个延续活动; 现在完成时"单一事件"的用法所采用的动词都是短暂动词, 或者用作短暂性的动词, 不表示一个延续活动
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A: Don’t you think Prof. Morison’s test was too difficult?
B: Well, I must admit I had been expecting more than just a passing grade in biology.
从完成进行时的意义角度来看, 这里过去完成进行时had been expecting表达的是在was之前一个近期延续事件
She answered the door carrying a magazine she had been reading.
这里的过去完成进行时had been reading用得非常贴切, 表示一个过去刚刚在延续的事件, 即在有人敲门之前, 她一直在看一本杂志. 所以, 整句话的意思是"她应声去开门, 手里还拿着一本刚刚一直在看的杂志
如果这里改为过去完成时had read, 则表示杂志早已读过, 那么整个句子的意思就变成"她拿着一本早已读过的杂志去开门", 这听起来显然有些奇怪, 不符合正常的逻辑
将来完成进行时的用法与现在完成进行时基本相同, 只是将"坐标时间"移到了将来. 同样是强调动作的持续性, 表示开始于将来某个时刻之前的动作持续到将来这一时刻, 并可能继续持续下去