Paper1_w.bib

@article{barriopedro_application_2010,
	title = {Application of blocking diagnosis methods to {General} {Circulation} {Models}. {Part} {I}: a novel detection scheme},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	shorttitle = {Application of blocking diagnosis methods to {General} {Circulation} {Models}. {Part} {I}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00382-010-0767-5},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-010-0767-5},
	language = {en},
	number = {7-8},
	urldate = {2014-08-11},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Barriopedro, D. and Garc{\'i}a-Herrera, R. and Trigo, R. M.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1373--1391},
	file = {2010 Barriopedro et al a CLIMDYN.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/W2SW537D/2010 Barriopedro et al a CLIMDYN.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{scaife_atmospheric_2010,
	title = {Atmospheric {Blocking} and {Mean} {Biases} in {Climate} {Models}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JCLI3728.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JCLI3728.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {23},
	urldate = {2014-08-11},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Scaife, Adam A. and Woollings, Tim and Knight, Jeff and Martin, Gill and Hinton, Tim},
	month = dec,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {6143--6152},
	file = {blocking_bia.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/blocking/blocking_bia.pdf:application/pdf;Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/M4S22M2B/Scaife et al. - 2010 - Atmospheric Blocking and Mean Biases in Climate Mo.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/NUPUN5ZC/2010JCLI3728.html:text/html}
}

@article{barnes_methodology_2012,
	title = {A methodology for the comparison of blocking climatologies across indices, models and climate scenarios},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00382-011-1243-6},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-011-1243-6},
	language = {en},
	number = {11-12},
	urldate = {2014-08-11},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Barnes, Elizabeth A. and Slingo, Julia and Woollings, Tim},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Comparison},
	pages = {2467--2481},
	file = {barnesetal2011_compare.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/Review papers/barnesetal2011_compare.pdf:application/pdf;Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/JVN4SHXZ/Barnes et al. - 2012 - A methodology for the comparison of blocking clima.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/6QKZCH6H/10.html:text/html}
}

@article{dole_persistent_1983,
	title = {Persistent {Anomalies} of the {Extratropical} {Northern} {Hemisphere} {Wintertime} {Circulation}: {Geographical} {Distribution} and {Regional} {Persistence} {Characteristics}},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {0027-0644, 1520-0493},
	shorttitle = {Persistent {Anomalies} of the {Extratropical} {Northern} {Hemisphere} {Wintertime} {Circulation}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493%281983%29111%3C1567%3APAOTEN%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1983)111<1567:PAOTEN>2.0.CO;2},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2015-05-07},
	journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	author = {Dole, Randall M. and Gordon, Neil D.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1983},
	keywords = {Northern Hemisphere, Blocking method, Geopotential height, DG\_anomalies},
	pages = {1567--1586},
	file = {Dole_NH_characteristics.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/blocking/Dole_NH_characteristics.pdf:application/pdf;Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/RHFT4Z6F/Dole and Gordon - 1983 - Persistent Anomalies of the Extratropical Northern.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/MJFRK9TI/1520-0493(1983)1111567PAOTEN2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{tibaldi_operational_1990,
	title = {On the operational predictability of blocking},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0280-6495, 1600-0870},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/11882},
	doi = {10.1034/j.1600-0870.1990.t01-2-00003.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2014-08-12},
	journal = {Tellus A},
	author = {Tibaldi, Stefano and Molteni, Franco},
	month = may,
	year = {1990},
	keywords = {Climatology, Northern Hemisphere, Blocking method, Geopotential height},
	pages = {343--365},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/5H9IEHIK/Tibaldi and Molteni - 1990 - On the operational predictability of blocking.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/HUH758SJ/abstract.html:text/html;tibaldi_molteni.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/methods/geopotential/tibaldi_molteni.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{pelly_new_2003,
	title = {A {New} {Perspective} on {Blocking}},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0469%282003%29060%3C0743%3AANPOB%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0743:ANPOB>2.0.CO;2},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2014-08-11},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Pelly, J. L. and Hoskins, B. J.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {Method},
	pages = {743--755},
	file = {pelly_hoskins2003.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/methods/pelly_hoskins2003.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{dee_era-interim_2011,
	title = {The {ERA}-{Interim} reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system},
	volume = {137},
	issn = {00359009},
	shorttitle = {The {ERA}-{Interim} reanalysis},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/qj.828},
	doi = {10.1002/qj.828},
	language = {en},
	number = {656},
	urldate = {2016-01-15},
	journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	author = {Dee, D. P. and Uppala, S. M. and Simmons, A. J. and Berrisford, P. and Poli, P. and Kobayashi, S. and Andrae, U. and Balmaseda, M. A. and Balsamo, G. and Bauer, P. and Bechtold, P. and Beljaars, A. C. M. and van de Berg, L. and Bidlot, J. and Bormann, N. and Delsol, C. and Dragani, R. and Fuentes, M. and Geer, A. J. and Haimberger, L. and Healy, S. B. and Hersbach, H. and H{\'o}lm, E. V. and Isaksen, L. and K{\r a}llberg, P. and K{\"o}hler, M. and Matricardi, M. and McNally, A. P. and Monge-Sanz, B. M. and Morcrette, J.-J. and Park, B.-K. and Peubey, C. and de Rosnay, P. and Tavolato, C. and Th{\'e}paut, J.-N. and Vitart, F.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {553--597},
	file = {ERA_interim.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/models/ERA_interim.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{sillmann_extreme_2011,
	title = {Extreme {Cold} {Winter} {Temperatures} in {Europe} under the {Influence} of {North} {Atlantic} {Atmospheric} {Blocking}},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2011JCLI4075.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2011JCLI4075.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {22},
	urldate = {2016-01-15},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Sillmann, Jana and Croci-Maspoli, Mischa and Kallache, Malaak and Katz, Richard W.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {5899--5913},
	file = {sillmannetal2011_euro_blocking.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/methods/Potential_vort/sillmannetal2011_euro_blocking.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{schwierz_perspicacious_2004,
	title = {Perspicacious indicators of atmospheric blocking},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2003GL019341},
	doi = {10.1029/2003GL019341},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2016-01-15},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Schwierz, C. and Croci-Maspoli, Mischa and Davies, H. C.},
	year = {2004},
	keywords = {3319 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: General circulation, 3364 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Synoptic-scale meteorology, 3309 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Climatology, 3300 Atmospheric Processes},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/B8KRV9MN/Schwierz et al. - 2004 - Perspicacious indicators of atmospheric blocking.pdf:application/pdf;schwierzetal2004_persp_block.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/methods/Potential_vort/schwierzetal2004_persp_block.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/ZANMZXDJ/abstract\;jsessionid=B286C65B2283A6A1081F1615DFCE7F6D.html:text/html}
}

@article{davini_bidimensional_2012,
	title = {Bidimensional {Diagnostics}, {Variability}, and {Trends} of {Northern} {Hemisphere} {Blocking}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00032.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00032.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {19},
	urldate = {2016-01-15},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Davini, Paolo and Cagnazzo, Chiara and Gualdi, Silvio and Navarra, Antonio},
	month = oct,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {TO READ},
	pages = {6496--6509},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/8WT6XAMQ/Davini et al. - 2012 - Bidimensional Diagnostics, Variability, and Trends.pdf:application/pdf;NH_trends.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/NH_trends.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/29HHZQV3/JCLI-D-12-00032.html:text/html}
}

@article{rex_blocking_1950,
	title = {Blocking {Action} in the {Middle} {Troposphere} and its {Effect} upon {Regional} {Climate}},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {00402826, 21533490},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/8546},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1950.tb00331.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-01-15},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Rex, Daniel F.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1950},
	keywords = {Blocking definition, Blocking regions, Blocking type},
	pages = {196--211},
	file = {Rex 1:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/Rex_blocking.pdf:application/pdf;Rex 2:/Users/mariellep/Dropbox/papers/REX-1950-Tellus.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{wiedenmann_climatology_2002,
	title = {The {Climatology} of {Blocking} {Anticyclones} for the {Northern} and {Southern} {Hemispheres}: {Block} {Intensity} as a {Diagnostic}},
	volume = {15},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {The {Climatology} of {Blocking} {Anticyclones} for the {Northern} and {Southern} {Hemispheres}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015%3C3459:TCOBAF%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<3459:TCOBAF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A 30-yr climatology of blocking events was compiled by stratifying the data into seasonal and three regional categories for both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres using the NCEP{\textendash}NCAR reanalyses. Several characteristics of blocking anticyclones were included in the study and these were frequency of occurrence, preferred formation regions, duration, blocking days, and intensity. The block intensity (BI) calculation was modified successfully from a previous study in order to automate the procedure for use with large datasets, and it is applied for the first time to derive a long-term observational record of this quantity. This modification also makes BI suitable for use as a diagnostic tool. Blocking events in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere were the most persistent and strongest during the cold season and over the Atlantic (Pacific) region, as found using BI to measure intensity. The characteristics of blocking events derived in this study were compared to previous long-term climatological studies and across each hemisphere. It was found that the temporal and spatial distributions in both hemispheres were similar to those of longer-term studies. The interannual variability of blocking was also examined with respect to ENSO-related variability for the entire blocking year. It was found that Northern (Southern) Hemisphere blocking events were stronger and more frequent during La Ni{\~n}a (El Ni{\~n}o) years, a result that is consistent with cyclone variability in each hemisphere. Additionally, these results were compared with previously published studies of interannual variability in blocking occurrence.},
	number = {23},
	urldate = {2016-04-28},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Wiedenmann, Jason M. and Lupo, Anthony R. and Mokhov, Igor I. and Tikhonova, Elena A.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {3459--3473},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/5I3KJJ5N/Wiedenmann et al. - 2002 - The Climatology of Blocking Anticyclones for the N.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/CIWTGETP/1520-0442(2002)0153459TCOBAF2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{scherrer_two-dimensional_2006,
	title = {Two-dimensional indices of atmospheric blocking and their statistical relationship with winter climate patterns in the {Euro}-{Atlantic} region},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1097-0088},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.1250/abstract},
	doi = {10.1002/joc.1250},
	abstract = {The statistical relationship between the leading climate patterns of mid-tropospheric flow and atmospheric blocking over the Euro{\textendash}Atlantic region during winter is investigated using three new two-dimensional blocking indicators. The focus is on the leading climate pattern of the 500-hPa geopotential variability, i.e. the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). The results indicate that the blocking-NAO relation is not restricted to the North Atlantic region, where blocking and the NAO are known to be out of phase. All three indicators show that the positive NAO phase is characterised by an enhanced occurrence of blocking-type high-pressure systems over the European mainland. The sign change of the NAO-blocking relation from west to east is well detectable with the two-dimensional blocking indicators and it is found further south than at the traditionally studied blocking latitudes near 60{\textdegree}N. The analysis of blocking events by seasonal NAO indices leads to similar (albeit less significant) results as with a daily NAO index stratification. This indicates that the relation between the NAO and blocking is fairly insensitive to the chosen time resolution. The investigation is extended from the second to fourth pattern of the mid-tropospheric flow variability using empirical orthogonal function (EOF) patterns. It reveals that one phase of each of the major Euro{\textendash}Atlantic climate patterns is collocated with the region of maximum blocking frequency. The clearest separation between positive (negative) EOF phases and blocking (no blocking) situations is found for EOF {\texttimes} 2 and 3 and is associated with changes from zonal to ridge-like flow, similar to the so-called northern European {\textquoteleft}blocking signature{\textquoteright}. This is an indication that the purely statistically defined EOF patterns are related to the physical blocking phenomenon. Copyright {\textcopyright} 2005 Royal Meteorological Society.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2016-04-28},
	journal = {Int. J. Climatol.},
	author = {Scherrer, Simon C. and Croci-Maspoli, Mischa and Schwierz, Cornelia and Appenzeller, Christof},
	month = feb,
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {atmospheric blocking index, NAO, climate patterns, Euro{\textendash}Atlantic, Europe, winter},
	pages = {233--249},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/C6NNFK49/Scherrer et al. - 2006 - Two-dimensional indices of atmospheric blocking an.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/J66ZE873/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{sinclair_climatology_1996,
	title = {A {Climatology} of {Anticyclones} and {Blocking} for the {Southern} {Hemisphere}},
	volume = {124},
	issn = {0027-0644},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493(1996)124%3C0245:ACOAAB%3E2.0.CO;2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1996)124<0245:ACOAAB>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {An automated procedure for locating and tracking high pressure centers is applied to 10 years of twice-daily ECMWF analyses during 1980{\textendash}89 to survey the behavior of anticyclones in the Southern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are concentrated in the 25{\textdegree}{\textendash}45{\textdegree}S band, with preferred regions consistent with previous studies except in the New Zealand (NZ){\textendash}South Pacific sector, where a double occurrence maximum noted in earlier studies was only weakly evident. Marked interannual variability was found in this region, with the poleward branch of maximum occurrence south of 50{\textdegree}S present in only 3 out of 10 years. Mean central pressure maximized about 10{\textdegree} south of the time-averaged ridge, with highest values in winter. Anticyclones poleward of 50{\textdegree}S involve an anomalous breakdown of the westerlies, with mean central pressures there 20{\textendash}30 hPa higher than climatology. Highs tend to form and intensify in western regions of ocean basins and weaken and dissipate in the east of these oceans. Regions southeast of Australia, NZ, South America, and Africa are especially prone to rapid anticyclogenesis. Blocking episodes were objectively identified both from the anticyclone track data as persistent highs having central pressure exceeding the time-averaged mean sea level pressure (MSLP) by more than 20 hpa and as persistent positive MSLP anomalies. Weaker or more mobile blocks were found throughout the South Pacific east of NZ, with secondary maxima east of South America and southeast of Africa, as in previous studies. However, more persistent and intense blocks were largely confined to two regions of the South Pacific{\textemdash}south-east of NZ and near 55{\textdegree}S, 110{\textdegree}W, west of South America.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-01-27},
	journal = {Mon. Wea. Rev.},
	author = {Sinclair, Mark R.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1996},
	pages = {245--264},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/8NB3THUI/Sinclair - 1996 - A Climatology of Anticyclones and Blocking for the.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/J2ZEGWCM/1520-0493(1996)1240245ACOAAB2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{sausen_analysis_1995,
	title = {Analysis of blocking events from observations and {ECHAM} model simulations},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {1600-0870},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1034/j.1600-0870.1995.t01-3-00003.x/abstract},
	doi = {10.1034/j.1600-0870.1995.t01-3-00003.x},
	abstract = {A new objective routine for the identification of individual blocking events has been developed which is applicable to data sets of different horizontal resolution. It is based on the 500 hPa geopotential height anomalies with respect to a mean seasonal cycle. Three features of blocking are checked with this method: the intensity of the anomaly exceeding some threshold, a certain extension prescribed by a peripheral value of geopotential height, and a duration of at least 5~days. The routine is applied to ECMWF analyses and to climate simulations of the Northern Hemisphere, which were performed with the atmosphere model ECHAM3. In winter, the blocking statistics derived from the observations are in accord with the results of other identification techniques. In other seasons the differences are larger due to a different definition of blocking. It is shown that the model ECHAM3 simulates the observed two-dimensional frequency distribution of blocking events quite realistically.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2017-01-28},
	journal = {Tellus A},
	author = {Sausen, R. and K{\"o}nig, W. and Sielmann, F.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1995},
	keywords = {DG\_anomalies},
	pages = {421--438},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/SMBHSCJJ/Sausen et al. - 1995 - Analysis of blocking events from observations and .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/464JKCMZ/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{lejenas_characteristics_1983,
	title = {Characteristics of northern hemisphere blocking as determined from a long time series of observational data},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {null},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3402/tellusa.v35i5.11446},
	doi = {10.3402/tellusa.v35i5.11446},
	abstract = {30 years of observational 500 mb geopotential height data have been used to assess the characteristics of northern hemisphere blocking situations. A zonal index suitable for identification of blockings is defined and translated into a computer program. Characteristics of blocking situations have been computed and are presented as statistics.As expected, there are 2 preferred regions for blocking, the Atlantic region and the Pacific region. The results show that the number of days with blocked flow has a maximum over the eastern part of the Atlantic region, while the maximum is found over the western part of the Pacific region. The annual variation shows that there is an extended maximum from February through April in the Atlantic region, while there is a pronounced maximum in January in the Pacific region.The occurrence of simultaneous blocking in the 2 regions has also been investigated. The results show that there is no preference for a connection.Investigation of individual blocking situations reveals that the shortest ones are also formed in preferred geographical locations, and are not just random configurations in the changing pattern of waves in the Westerlies. There is a tendency for blocking episodes to seem to be concentrated in certain geographical locations, the longer the duration of the episode. The results also show that long-lasting episodes are notably more frequent in the Atlantic region than in the Pacific.},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2017-02-04},
	journal = {Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography},
	author = {Lejen{\"a}s, Harald and {\O}kland, Hans},
	month = jan,
	year = {1983},
	pages = {350--362},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/8CTJS6BE/tellusa.v35i5.html:text/html}
}

@article{ullrich_tempestextremes_2016,
	title = {{TempestExtremes} v1.0: {A} {Framework} for {Scale}-{Insensitive} {Pointwise} {Feature} {Tracking} on {Unstructured} {Grids}},
	issn = {1991-962X},
	shorttitle = {{TempestExtremes} v1.0},
	url = {http://www.geosci-model-dev-discuss.net/gmd-2016-217/},
	doi = {10.5194/gmd-2016-217},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2017-02-04},
	journal = {Geoscientific Model Development Discussions},
	author = {Ullrich, Paul A. and Zarzycki, Colin M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {1--36}
}

@article{dunn-sigouin_evaluation_2012,
	title = {Evaluation of {Northern} {Hemisphere} {Blocking} {Climatology} in the {Global} {Environment} {Multiscale} {Model}},
	volume = {141},
	issn = {0027-0644},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00134.1},
	doi = {10.1175/MWR-D-12-00134.1},
	abstract = {The performance of the Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) model, the Canadian operational numerical model, in reproducing atmospheric low-frequency variability is evaluated in the context of Northern Hemisphere blocking climatology. The validation is conducted by applying a comprehensive but relatively simple blocking detection algorithm to a 20-yr (1987{\textendash}2006) integration of the GEM model in climate mode. The comparison to reanalysis reveals that, although the model can reproduce Northern Hemisphere blocking climatology reasonably well, the maximum blocking frequency over the North Atlantic and western Europe is generally underestimated and its peak season is delayed from late winter to spring. This contrasts with the blocking frequency over the North Pacific, which is generally overestimated during all seasons. These misrepresentations of blocking climatology are found to be largely associated with the biases in climatological background flow. The modeled stationary waves show a seasonal delay in zonal wavenumber 1 and an eastward extension in zonal wavenumber-2 components consistent with blocking frequency biases. High-frequency eddies are, however, consistently underestimated both in the North Atlantic and Pacific, indicating that the biases in eddy fields might not be the main reason for the blocking biases in the North Pacific.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-05-21},
	journal = {Mon. Wea. Rev.},
	author = {Dunn-Sigouin, Etienne and Son, Seok-Woo and Lin, Hai},
	month = aug,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {707--727},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/E8H76AV5/Dunn-Sigouin et al. - 2012 - Evaluation of Northern Hemisphere Blocking Climato.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/SG7NV8Q8/MWR-D-12-00134.html:text/html}
}

@article{pook_seasonal_2013,
	title = {The {Seasonal} {Cycle} of {Blocking} and {Associated} {Physical} {Mechanisms} in the {Australian} {Region} and {Relationship} with {Rainfall}},
	volume = {141},
	issn = {0027-0644, 1520-0493},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/MWR-D-13-00040.1},
	doi = {10.1175/MWR-D-13-00040.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2017-06-09},
	journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	author = {Pook, M. J. and Risbey, J. S. and McIntosh, P. C. and Ummenhofer, C. C. and Marshall, A. G. and Meyers, G. A.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {4534--4553},
	file = {Pook.etal_2013.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/XKFUQX53/Pook.etal_2013.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@book{glickman_american_2000,
	address = {Boston, Mass},
	edition = {2nd ed},
	title = {American {Meteorological} {Society} {Glossary} of {Meteorology}},
	isbn = {978-1-878220-34-9},
	publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Glickman, Todd S.},
	editor = {Glickman, Todd S.},
	year = {2000},
	keywords = {Meteorology}
}

@article{berggren_aerological_1949,
	title = {An {Aerological} {Study} of {Zonal} {Motion}, its {Perturbations} and {Break}-down},
	volume = {1},
	issn = {2153-3490},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2153-3490.1949.tb01257.x/abstract},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1949.tb01257.x},
	abstract = {This paper contains an aerological analysis of a series of rapid-moving frontal waves associated with a well developed zonal current over central Europe. The gradual destruction of this zonal flow through a retrograde blocking {\textquotedblleft}wave{\textquotedblright} is described. The relationship between the blocking process and the deepening of series of waves approaching the blocking zone from North America is discussed. The observational data and conclusions from this aerological study are presented for the purpose of rendering some assistance to theoreticians investigating atmospheric wave motions, by providing a few numerical values for certain characteristic parameters of these waves and by calling attention to a factor which appears to play a significant r{\^o}le in the deepening of certain types of extra-tropical wave cyclones, viz. the variation with longitude of the basic current pattern.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Berggren, R. and Bolin, B. and Rossby, C.-G.},
	month = may,
	year = {1949},
	pages = {14--37},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/2NJB3PZN/Berggren et al. - 1949 - An Aerological Study of Zonal Motion, its Perturba.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/QHIRNN84/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{mcwilliams_application_1980,
	title = {An application of equivalent modons to atmospheric blocking},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {0377-0265},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037702658090010X},
	doi = {10.1016/0377-0265(80)90010-X},
	abstract = {Certain consistent features are demonstrated between a particular strong, vortex pair atmospheric blocking pattern over the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and Europe during January 1963 and an equivalent modon solution of the inviscid equivalent barotropic equation. Modons are uniformly translating, shape preserving, non-linear analytic solutions. The equivalent barotropic model for the atmosphere is derived as a lowest-order truncation of an expansion and projection of the quasigeostrophic equations with the empirical orthogonal pressure modes of the troposphere. The horizontal and vertical structure of the blocking pattern, as well as its intensity, are consistent with the modon dispersion relation. On the other hand, there remain some uncertainties about whether the pressure profile of the mean zonal wind is consistent with modon requirements and whether a stationary theoretical solution adequately reflects the essential dynamics of a fluctuating and regenerative blocking pattern.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans},
	author = {McWilliams, James C.},
	month = may,
	year = {1980},
	pages = {43--66},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/HP5ZFTTC/McWilliams - 1980 - An application of equivalent modons to atmospheric.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/NBT7T98T/037702658090010X.html:text/html}
}

@article{parsons_assessment_2016,
	title = {An {Assessment} of {Future} {Southern} {Hemisphere} {Blocking} {Using} {CMIP}5 {Projections} from {Four} {GCMs}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0754.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0754.1},
	abstract = {This study is concerned with blocking events (BEs) in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), their past variability, and future projections. ERA-Interim (ERA-I) is used to compare the historical output from four general circulation models (GCMs) from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5); the output of the representative concentration pathway 4.5 and 8.5 (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) projections are also examined. ERA-I shows that the higher latitudes of the South Pacific Ocean (SPO) are the main blocking region, with blocking occurring predominantly in winter. The CMIP5 historical simulations also agree well with ERA-I for annual and seasonal BE locations and frequencies. A reduction in BEs is observed in the SPO in the 2071{\textendash}2100 period in the RCP4.5 projections, and this is more pronounced for the RCP8.5 projections and occurs predominantly during the spring and summer seasons. Preliminary investigations imply that the southern annular mode (SAM) is negatively correlated with blocking activity in the SPO in all seasons in the reanalysis. This negative correlation is also observed in the GCM historical output. However, in the RCP projections this correlation is reduced in three of the four models during summer, suggesting that SAM may be less influential in summertime blocking in the future.},
	number = {21},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Parsons, Simon and Renwick, James A. and McDonald, Adrian J.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {7599--7611},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/D9GDXHBR/Parsons et al. - 2016 - An Assessment of Future Southern Hemisphere Blocki.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/TGW4DZ4S/JCLI-D-15-0754.html:text/html}
}

@article{masato_winter_2013,
	title = {Winter and {Summer} {Northern} {Hemisphere} {Blocking} in {CMIP}5 {Models}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00466.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00466.1},
	abstract = {The frequencies of atmospheric blocking in both winter and summer and the changes in them from the twentieth to the twenty-first centuries as simulated in 12 models from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) are analyzed. The representative concentration pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) high emission scenario runs are used to represent the twenty-first century. The analysis is based on the wave-breaking methodology of Pelly and Hoskins. It differs from the Tibaldi and Molteni index in viewing equatorward cutoff lows and poleward blocking highs in equal manner as indicating a disruption to the westerlies. One-dimensional and two-dimensional diagnostics are applied to identify blocking of the midlatitude storm track and also at higher latitudes. Winter blocking frequency is found to be generally underestimated. The models give a decrease in the European blocking maximum in the twenty-first century, consistent with the results in other studies. There is a mean twenty-first-century winter poleward shift of high-latitude blocking but little agreement between the models on the details. In summer, Eurasian blocking is also underestimated in the models, whereas it is now too large over the high-latitude ocean basins. A decrease in European blocking frequency in the twenty-first-century model runs is again found. However, in summer there is a clear eastward shift of blocking over eastern Europe and western Russia, in a region close to the blocking that dominated the Russian summer of 2010. While summer blocking decreases in general, the poleward shift of the storm track into the region of frequent high-latitude blocking may mean that the incidence of storms being obstructed by blocks may actually increase.},
	number = {18},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Masato, Giacomo and Hoskins, Brian J. and Woollings, Tim},
	month = mar,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {7044--7059},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/PWC3293N/Masato et al. - 2013 - Winter and Summer Northern Hemisphere Blocking in .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/WJ43GM89/JCLI-D-12-00466.html:text/html}
}

@article{mendes_southern_2012,
	title = {Southern {Hemisphere} atmospheric blocking diagnostic by {ECMWF} and {NCEP}/{NCAR} data},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0102-7786},
	url = {http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0102-77862012000300001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en},
	doi = {10.1590/S0102-77862012000300001},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2017-10-25},
	journal = {Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia},
	author = {Mendes, Monica Cristina Dami{\~a}o and Cavalcanti, Iracema F. A. and Herdies, Dirceu Luis},
	month = sep,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {263--271},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/FSJGGEJT/Mendes et al. - 2012 - Southern Hemisphere atmospheric blocking diagnosti.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/KU6BD827/scielo.html:text/html}
}

@article{hakkinen_atmospheric_2011,
	title = {Atmospheric {Blocking} and {Atlantic} {Multidecadal} {Ocean} {Variability}},
	volume = {334},
	copyright = {Copyright {\textcopyright} 2011, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/334/6056/655},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1205683},
	abstract = {Atmospheric blocking over the northern North Atlantic, which involves isolation of large regions of air from the westerly circulation for 5 days or more, influences fundamentally the ocean circulation and upper ocean properties by affecting wind patterns. Winters with clusters of more frequent blocking between Greenland and western Europe correspond to a warmer, more saline subpolar ocean. The correspondence between blocked westerly winds and warm ocean holds in recent decadal episodes (especially 1996 to 2010). It also describes much longer time scale Atlantic multidecadal ocean variability (AMV), including the extreme pre{\textendash}greenhouse-gas northern warming of the 1930s to 1960s. The space-time structure of the wind forcing associated with a blocked regime leads to weaker ocean gyres and weaker heat exchange, both of which contribute to the warm phase of AMV.
Changing ocean circulation patterns and sea surface temperatures affect atmospheric flow in the North Atlantic region.
Changing ocean circulation patterns and sea surface temperatures affect atmospheric flow in the North Atlantic region.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6056},
	urldate = {2017-10-25},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {H{\"a}kkinen, Sirpa and Rhines, Peter B. and Worthen, Denise L.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2011},
	pmid = {22053046},
	pages = {655--659},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/RGQA6DI4/H{\"a}kkinen et al. - 2011 - Atmospheric Blocking and Atlantic Multidecadal Oce.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/EZVKMWB4/655.html:text/html}
}

@article{pfahl_quantifying_2012,
	title = {Quantifying the relevance of atmospheric blocking for co-located temperature extremes in the {Northern} {Hemisphere} on (sub-)daily time scales},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2012GL052261/abstract},
	doi = {10.1029/2012GL052261},
	abstract = {Atmospheric blocking can influence near-surface temperature via circulation and radiative forcing. This study investigates the relevance of blocking for co-located (sub-)daily temperature extremes and the spatial variability of this relationship in the Northern Hemisphere. It is shown that over large parts of the high-latitude continents warm temperature extremes often occur simultaneously with atmospheric blocking at the same location. Taking also weak blocks into account, more than 80\% of the six-hourly warm extremes are associated with blocking, e.g., in eastern Canada, Scandinavia and parts of Siberia. On the contrary, cold extremes typically are not related to co-located atmospheric blocking. This difference between warm and cold extremes points to differences also in the physical driving mechanisms of the extremes. The strong linkage of warm temperature extremes and blocking should be considered when investigating changes of temperature extremes with global warming.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	journal = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Pfahl, S. and Wernli, H.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Temperature extremes, blocking, 3309 Climatology, 4313 Extreme events, 3364 Synoptic-scale meteorology, heat waves, 4301 Atmospheric},
	pages = {L12807},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/9WTMNZ8B/Pfahl and Wernli - 2012 - Quantifying the relevance of atmospheric blocking .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/PGPDUFTT/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{black_factors_2004,
	title = {Factors contributing to the summer 2003 {European} heatwave},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {1477-8696},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1256/wea.74.04/abstract},
	doi = {10.1256/wea.74.04},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	journal = {Weather},
	author = {Black, Emily and Blackburn, Mike and Harrison, Giles and Hoskins, Brian and Methven, John},
	month = aug,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {217--223},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/7XA5WTH3/Black et al. - 2004 - Factors contributing to the summer 2003 European h.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/IJNK5HGK/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{cheung_revisiting_2013,
	title = {Revisiting the climatology of atmospheric blocking in the {Northern} {Hemisphere}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0256-1530, 1861-9533},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-012-2006-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s00376-012-2006-y},
	abstract = {In addition to the occurrence of atmospheric blocking, the climatology of the characteristics of blocking events, including duration, intensity, and extension, in four seasons over the Northern Hemisphere was analyzed for the period 1950{\textendash}2009. The seasonality and spatial variations of these characteristics were studied according to their longitudinal distributions. In general, there were sharp discrepancies in the blocking characteristics between winter and summer, and these differences were more prominent over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The blocking not only occurred more frequently but also underwent stronger amplification in winter; likewise, the blocking occurred less frequently and underwent weaker amplification in summer. There are very strong interrelationships among different blocking characteristics, suggesting that they are supported by similar physical factors.In addition, the relationship between blocking over different regions and East Asian circulation was examined. Ural-Siberia is a major blocking formation region in all seasons that may exert a downstream impact on East Asia. The impact is generally weak in summer, which is due to its lower intensity and smaller duration. However, the extratropical circulation over East Asia in summer can be disturbed persistently by the frequent occurrence of blocking over the Asian continent or the Western Pacific. In particular, the blocking frequency over the Western Pacific significantly increased during the study period. This climatological information provides a background for studying the impact of blocking on East Asian circulation under both present and future climate conditions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-11-08},
	journal = {Adv. Atmos. Sci.},
	author = {Cheung, Ho Nam and Zhou, Wen and Mok, Hing Yim and Wu, Man Chi and Shao, Yaping},
	month = mar,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {397--410},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/AIW65PC6/Cheung et al. - 2013 - Revisiting the climatology of atmospheric blocking.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/7X3Q5Z6N/s00376-012-2006-y.html:text/html}
}

@article{cvijanovic_future_2017,
	title = {Future loss of {Arctic} sea-ice cover could drive a substantial decrease in {California}{\textquoteright}s rainfall},
	volume = {8},
	copyright = {2017 The Author(s)},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01907-4},
	doi = {10.1038/s41467-017-01907-4},
	abstract = {{\textless}p{\textgreater}Persistent atmospheric ridging in the North Pacific steered storms away and led to the California drought of 2012-16. Here the authors use simulations to show that sea-ice changes trigger reorganization of tropical convection resulting in drying over California.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}},
	language = {En},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-12-06},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Cvijanovic, Ivana and Santer, Benjamin D. and Bonfils, C{\'e}line and Lucas, Donald D. and Chiang, John C. H. and Zimmerman, Susan},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1947},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/5WC5K3DR/Cvijanovic et al. - 2017 - Future loss of Arctic sea-ice cover could drive a .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/I3AEZSIJ/s41467-017-01907-4.html:text/html}
}

@article{swain_extraordinary_2014,
	title = {The {Extraordinary} {California} {Drought} of 2013/2014: {Character}, {Context}, and the {Role} of {Climate} {Change}},
	volume = {95},
	copyright = {Copyright American Meteorological Society Sep 2014},
	issn = {00030007},
	shorttitle = {The {Extraordinary} {California} {Drought} of 2013/2014},
	url = {https://search.proquest.com/docview/1623231385/abstract/D199604F9FF14513PQ/1},
	abstract = {[...]neither our probability quantification nor our compositing methodology quantifies the amplitude of extreme ridging events. Because we do not explicitly consider geopotential heights outside the North Pacific, it is likely that our inclusion of all years that exceed the 99th percentile P.L GPH leads to inclusion of some events that have lower amplitude than that associated with either the 99th percentile P.I. GPH or the 2013 event. [...]our present methodology cannot reject the possibil- ity that the frequency of occurrence of years with anomalous GPH gradients-and the risk of extreme drought associated with a perturbed North Pacific storm track-has not changed between the prein- dustrial period and the present.},
	language = {English},
	number = {9},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society; Boston},
	author = {Swain, Daniel L. and Tsiang, Michael and Haugen, Matz and Singh, Deepti and Charland, Allison and Rajaratnam, Bala and Diffenbaugh, Noah S.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Meteorology, drought, Rain, Seasons},
	pages = {S3--S7},
	file = {Full Text Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/X37ZFUWG/1.html:text/html;Stanford-report.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/HWMQV4GD/Stanford-report.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{swain_trends_2016,
	title = {Trends in atmospheric patterns conducive to seasonal precipitation and temperature extremes in {California}},
	volume = {2},
	copyright = {Copyright {\textcopyright} 2016, The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, so long as the resultant use is not for commercial advantage and provided the original work is properly cited.},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	url = {http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/2/4/e1501344},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.1501344},
	abstract = {Recent evidence suggests that changes in atmospheric circulation have altered the probability of extreme climate events in the Northern Hemisphere. We investigate northeastern Pacific atmospheric circulation patterns that have historically (1949{\textendash}2015) been associated with cool-season (October-May) precipitation and temperature extremes in California. We identify changes in occurrence of atmospheric circulation patterns by measuring the similarity of the cool-season atmospheric configuration that occurred in each year of the 1949{\textendash}2015 period with the configuration that occurred during each of the five driest, wettest, warmest, and coolest years. Our analysis detects statistically significant changes in the occurrence of atmospheric patterns associated with seasonal precipitation and temperature extremes. We also find a robust increase in the magnitude and subseasonal persistence of the cool-season West Coast ridge, resulting in an amplification of the background state. Changes in both seasonal mean and extreme event configurations appear to be caused by a combination of spatially nonuniform thermal expansion of the atmosphere and reinforcing trends in the pattern of sea level pressure. In particular, both thermal expansion and sea level pressure trends contribute to a notable increase in anomalous northeastern Pacific ridging patterns similar to that observed during the 2012{\textendash}2015 California drought. Collectively, our empirical findings suggest that the frequency of atmospheric conditions like those during California{\textquoteright}s most severely dry and hot years has increased in recent decades, but not necessarily at the expense of patterns associated with extremely wet years.
Northeastern Pacific atmospheric patterns conducive to California drought have occurred more frequently in recent decades.
Northeastern Pacific atmospheric patterns conducive to California drought have occurred more frequently in recent decades.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2017-12-06},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Swain, Daniel L. and Horton, Daniel E. and Singh, Deepti and Diffenbaugh, Noah S.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {e1501344},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/CU9QRFEF/Swain et al. - 2016 - Trends in atmospheric patterns conducive to season.pdf:application/pdf;Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/44RFS7BH/Swain et al. - 2016 - Trends in atmospheric patterns conducive to season.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/Z6ZSDPK2/e1501344.html:text/html;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/SBEQQXSN/e1501344.html:text/html}
}

@article{grotjahn_synoptic_2017,
	title = {Synoptic {Analysis} of {Cold} {Air} {Outbreaks} over the {California} {Central} {Valley}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0167.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0167.1},
	abstract = {How does extreme cold air reach the California Central Valley (CCV) and most of the U.S. west coast? This question is answered using composite patterns for the 10 coldest cold air outbreaks (CAOs) to reach the CCV during 1979{\textendash}2013. While unusually cold air over California occurs in all events by design, how it arrives there is complicated and varies. The only other feature present in all events for several days prior to CAO onset is unusually strong surface high pressure in and south of the Gulf of Alaska. This high has low-level cold air on its west side and a deep layer of cold air moving southward on its east side. Cold air aloft flows parallel to the North American west coast and sinks as it approaches the CCV. Farther west, warm advection builds a ridge aloft. The large-scale meteorological pattern (LSMP) is equivalent barotropic. The LSMP{\textquoteright}s ridge over Alaska, trough near California, and ridge over the southeastern United States appear in all cases by onset and resemble the Pacific{\textendash}North American teleconnection pattern. Cross sections show cold air flowing from the continental interior consistent with a strong pressure gradient created by extreme cold in the continental interior. Where and when the interior cold and surface flow occurs varies between events. A geopotential height trough associated with that cold air aloft passes over the CCV before onset fostering sinking behind that is reinforced by the cold air advection below. Although sinking, as a locally defined anomaly, the cold intensifies as it migrates from the polar region to the climatologically warmer CCV.},
	number = {23},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Grotjahn, Richard and Zhang, Rui},
	month = sep,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {9417--9433},
	file = {JCLI-D-17-0167.pdf:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/K6UWWEUB/JCLI-D-17-0167.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{sousa_responses_2017,
	title = {Responses of {European} precipitation distributions and regimes to different blocking locations},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-016-3132-5},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-016-3132-5},
	abstract = {In this work we performed an analysis on the impacts of blocking episodes on seasonal and annual European precipitation and the associated physical mechanisms. Distinct domains were considered in detail taking into account different blocking center positions spanning between the Atlantic and western Russia. Significant positive precipitation anomalies are found for southernmost areas while generalized negative anomalies (up to 75 \% in some areas) occur in large areas of central and northern Europe. This dipole of anomalies is reversed when compared to that observed during episodes of strong zonal flow conditions. We illustrate that the location of the maximum precipitation anomalies follows quite well the longitudinal positioning of the blocking centers and discuss regional and seasonal differences in the precipitation responses. To better understand the precipitation anomalies, we explore the blocking influence on cyclonic activity. The results indicate a split of the storm-tracks north and south of blocking systems, leading to an almost complete reduction of cyclonic centers in northern and central Europe and increases in southern areas, where cyclone frequency doubles during blocking episodes. However, the underlying processes conductive to the precipitation anomalies are distinct between northern and southern European regions, with a significant role of atmospheric instability in southern Europe, and moisture availability as the major driver at higher latitudes. This distinctive underlying process is coherent with the characteristic patterns of latent heat release from the ocean associated with blocked and strong zonal flow patterns. We also analyzed changes in the full range of the precipitation distribution of several regional sectors during blocked and zonal days. Results show that precipitation reductions in the areas under direct blocking influence are driven by a substantial drop in the frequency of moderate rainfall classes. Contrarily, southwards of blocking systems, frequency increases in moderate to extreme rainfall classes largely determine the precipitation anomaly in the accumulated totals. In this context, we show the close relationship between the more intrinsic torrential nature of Mediterranean precipitation regimes and the role of blocking systems in increasing the probability of extreme events.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2018-01-17},
	journal = {Clim Dyn},
	author = {Sousa, Pedro M. and Trigo, Ricardo M. and Barriopedro, David and Soares, Pedro M. M. and Ramos, Alexandre M. and Liberato, Margarida L. R.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1141--1160},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/Q8AZMBQE/10.html:text/html}
}

@article{garrido-perez_strong_2017,
	title = {Strong signatures of high-latitude blocks and subtropical ridges in winter {PM}10 over {Europe}},
	volume = {167},
	issn = {1352-2310},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231017305095},
	doi = {10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.08.004},
	abstract = {This paper analyses the impact of high-latitude blocks and subtropical ridges on daily PM10 (particulate matter~<=~10~$\mu$m) observations obtained from the European Environment Agency's air quality database (AirBase) for the winter period of 2000{\textendash}2010. The response of the pollutant concentrations to the location of blocks and ridges with centres in two main longitudinal sectors (Atlantic, ATL, 30{\textdegree}{\textendash}0{\textdegree} W; European, EUR, 0{\textdegree}{\textendash}30{\textdegree} E) is examined. In particular, EUR blocking is associated with a collapse of the boundary layer as well as reduced wind speeds and precipitation occurrence, yielding large positive anomalies which average 12~$\mu$g~m-3 over the whole continent. Conversely, the enhanced zonal flow around 50{\textdegree}{\textendash}60{\textdegree} N and the increased occurrence of precipitation over northern-central Europe on days with ATL ridges favour the ventilation of the boundary layer and the impact of washout processes, reducing PM10 concentrations on average by around 8~$\mu$g~m-3. The presence of EUR blocks is also concurrent with an increased probability of exceeding the air quality target (50~$\mu$g~m-3 for 24-h averaged PM10) and the local 90th percentiles for this pollutant at many sites in central Europe, while the opposite effect is found for ridges. In addition, the effect of synoptic persistence on the PM10 concentrations is stronger for EUR blocks than for ATL ridges. This could benefit the predictability of PM10 extremes over wide areas of the region. Finally, we have found that the combined or isolated effect of both synoptic patterns can partly control the interannual variability of winter mean PM10 at many sites of north-western and central Europe, with coefficients of determination (R2) exceeding 0.80 for southern Germany. These results indicate that the response of the particulate matter (PM) concentrations to large-scale circulation patterns is stronger than previously reported for Europe and other mid-latitude regions.},
	journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
	author = {Garrido-Perez, Jose M. and Ord{\'o}{\~n}ez, Carlos and Garc{\'i}a-Herrera, Ricardo},
	month = oct,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {PM, Particulate matter, Atmospheric blocking, Subtropical ridges, Synoptic meteorology, Air quality},
	pages = {49--60},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/MS9BU2NK/Garrido-Perez et al. - 2017 - Strong signatures of high-latitude blocks and subt.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/TVPEQBEI/S1352231017305095.html:text/html}
}

@article{sousa_european_2017,
	title = {European temperature responses to blocking and ridge regional patterns},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-017-3620-2},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-017-3620-2},
	abstract = {Blocking occurrence and its impacts on European temperature have been studied in the last decade. However, most previous studies on blocking impacts have focused on winter only, disregarding its fingerprint in summer and differences with other synoptic patterns that also trigger temperature extremes. In this work, we provide a clear distinction between high-latitude blocking and sub-tropical ridges occurring in three sectors of the Euro-Atlantic region, describing their climatology and consequent impacts on European temperature during both winter and summer. Winter blocks (ridges) are generally associated to colder (warmer) than average conditions over large regions of Europe, in some areas with anomalies larger than 5 {\textdegree}C, particularly for the patterns occurring in the Atlantic and Central European sectors. During summer, there is a more regional response characterized by above average temperature for both blocking and ridge patterns, especially those occurring in continental areas, although negative temperature anomalies persist in southernmost areas during blocking. An objective analysis of the different forcing mechanisms associated to each considered weather regime has been performed, quantifying the importance of the following processes in causing the temperature anomalies: horizontal advection, vertical advection and diabatic heating. While during winter advection processes tend to be more relevant to explain temperature responses, in summer radiative heating under enhanced insolation plays a crucial role for both blocking and ridges. Finally, the changes in the distributions of seasonal temperature and in the frequencies of extreme temperature indices were also examined for specific areas of Europe. Winter blocking and ridge patterns are key drivers in the occurrence of regional cold and warm extreme temperatures, respectively. In summer, they are associated with substantial changes in the frequency of extremely warm days, but with different signatures in southern Europe. We conclude that there has been some misusage of the traditional blocking definition in the attribution of extreme events.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2018-01-17},
	journal = {Clim Dyn},
	author = {Sousa, Pedro M. and Trigo, Ricardo M. and Barriopedro, David and Soares, Pedro M. M. and Santos, Jo{\~a}o A.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1--21},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/8FEQ9V27/Sousa et al. - 2017 - European temperature responses to blocking and rid.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/D2ZR29VR/10.html:text/html}
}

@article{bissolli_flooding_2011,
	title = {Flooding in eastern central {Europe} in {May} 2010 {\textendash} reasons, evolution and climatological assessment},
	volume = {66},
	copyright = {Copyright {\textcopyright} 2011 Royal Meteorological Society},
	issn = {1477-8696},
	url = {https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wea.759},
	doi = {10.1002/wea.759},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Weather},
	author = {Bissolli, Peter and Friedrich, Karsten and Rapp, J{\"o}rg and Ziese, Markus},
	month = jun,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {147--153},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/J6TPC7R7/Bissolli et al. - 2011 - Flooding in eastern central Europe in May 2010 {\textendash} r.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/MG88TJUR/wea.html:text/html}
}

@article{hong_roles_2011,
	title = {Roles of {European} blocking and tropical-extratropical interaction in the 2010 {Pakistan} flooding},
	volume = {38},
	copyright = {Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011GL047583},
	doi = {10.1029/2011GL047583},
	abstract = {A sequence of monsoon surges struck Pakistan and Northwestern India during late July-early August 2010. The unusually heavy monsoon rainfall resulted in record-breaking floods, which affected 20 million people with a death toll of near 3000. Simultaneously, a long-lived blocking high appeared over Europe and Russia in middle June and persisted for nearly two months. Extreme flooding occurred when the southward penetration of extratropical potential vorticity in the deep trough east of the European blocking and the tropical monsoon surges arrived concurrently in Pakistan. This study demonstrates that the interaction between the tropical monsoon surges and the extratropical disturbances downstream of the European blocking was the key factor leading to the severe flooding in Pakistan. The 2010 La Ni{\~n}a condition contributed indirectly to the flooding by inducing a low-level easterly anomaly in South and Southeast Asia, which weakened eastward moisture transport and helped enhance moisture transport (convergence) to (in) the Northern Arabian Sea and Pakistan.},
	language = {en},
	number = {13},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Hong, Chi-Cherng and Hsu, Huang-Hsiung and Lin, Nai-Hsin and Chiu, Hsun},
	month = jul,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {blocking, monsoon surge, Pakistan flooding, tropical-extratropical interaction},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/I64PIRDM/Hong et al. - 2011 - Roles of European blocking and tropical-extratropi.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/HAU3A3R3/2011GL047583.html:text/html}
}

@article{houze_anomalous_2011,
	title = {Anomalous {Atmospheric} {Events} {Leading} to the {Summer} 2010 {Floods} in {Pakistan}},
	volume = {92},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/2010BAMS3173.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010BAMS3173.1},
	abstract = {No abstract available.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.},
	author = {Houze, R. A. and Rasmussen, K. L. and Medina, S. and Brodzik, S. R. and Romatschke, U.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {291--298},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/JH2E8UFV/Houze et al. - 2011 - Anomalous Atmospheric Events Leading to the Summer.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/PZHJXK9J/2010BAMS3173.html:text/html}
}

@article{webster_were_2011,
	title = {Were the 2010 {Pakistan} floods predictable?},
	volume = {38},
	copyright = {Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2010GL046346},
	doi = {10.1029/2010GL046346},
	abstract = {During July 2010, a series of monsoonal deluges over northern Pakistan resulted in catastrophic flooding, loss of life and property and an agricultural crisis that may last for years. Was the rainfall abnormal compared to previous years? Furthermore, could a high probability of flooding have been predicted? To address these questions, regional precipitation is analyzed using three dataset sets covering the 1981{\textendash}2010 time period. It is concluded that the 2010 average May to August (MJJA) rainfall for year 2010 is somewhat greater in magnitude than previous years. However, the rainfall rate of the July deluges, especially in North Pakistan was exceptionally rare as deduced from limited data. The location of the deluges over the mountainous northern part of the country lead to the devastating floods. The European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) 15-day Ensemble Prediction System (EPS) is used to assess whether the rainfall over the flood affected region was predictable. A multi-year analysis shows that Pakistan rainfall is highly predictable out to 6{\textendash}8 days including rainfall in the summer of 2010. We conclude that if these extended quantitative precipitation forecasts had been available in Pakistan, the high risk of flooding could have been foreseen. If these rainfall forecasts had been coupled to a hydrological model then the high risk of extensive and prolonged flooding could have anticipated and actions taken to mitigate their impact.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Webster, P. J. and Toma, V. E. and Kim, H.-M.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {2010 Pakistan flooding, flood forecast},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/7NURWQ3Q/Webster et al. - 2011 - Were the 2010 Pakistan floods predictable.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/VZI369NL/2010GL046346.html:text/html}
}

@article{grotjahn_composite_2008,
	title = {Composite {Predictor} {Maps} of {Extraordinary} {Weather} {Events} in the {Sacramento}, {California}, {Region}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0882-8156},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2007WAF2006055.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2007WAF2006055.1},
	abstract = {Extraordinary weather events in the Sacramento, California, region are examined using a simple compositing technique. The extraordinary events identified are uncommon and the worst of their kind, but not necessarily severe. While the criteria outlined herein are drawn from Sacramento weather station data, the identified events are extraordinary elsewhere over much, if not all, of California{\textquoteright}s Central Valley. Several types of extraordinary events are highlighted, including the hardest freezes, heaviest prolonged rain events, longest-duration fog, and worst heat waves (onset and end) in a 21-yr period. Bootstrap resampling establishes the statistical significance of features on the composite maps. The composite maps with statistically significant features highlighted allow a forecaster to search for key features in forecast maps that coexist with or that precede an extraordinary weather event. Local- and regional-scale extraordinary events have larger-scale signatures that can be traced back in time. Many of these features are intuitive and known to local forecasters (and that provides a check upon the methodology used here). However, some features appear to be unexpected. For example, a ridge (in height and thermal fields) over the southeastern United States generally occurs prior to the worst heat waves and hardest freezes. Some features appear to exhibit the theoretical concept of downstream development. Several extraordinary weather types are preceded by a ridge either over Alaska (hardest freezes and heaviest prolonged rain) or just west of Alaska (worst heat waves). While the Alaskan ridge passes a significance test, the presence of other features (such as the southeastern ridge) determines what, if any, extraordinary event occurs near Sacramento. However, a feature that passes the significance test for the composite might not occur in every member of a given extraordinary event. The height and thermal patterns over the West Coast and North Pacific are similar for summer{\textquoteright}s worst heat waves and winter{\textquoteright}s longest-duration fog: both types of events are preceded by a trough in the eastern mid-Pacific.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Wea. Forecasting},
	author = {Grotjahn, Richard and Faure, Ghislain},
	month = jun,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {313--335},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/Q7XF9HAJ/Grotjahn and Faure - 2008 - Composite Predictor Maps of Extraordinary Weather .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/I5MKE8CL/2007WAF2006055.html:text/html}
}

@article{lee_california_2015,
	title = {California {Central} {Valley} {Summer} {Heat} {Waves} {Form} {Two} {Ways}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0270.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0270.1},
	abstract = {California Central Valley (CCV) heat waves are grouped into two types based on the temporal and spatial evolution of the large-scale meteorological patterns (LSMPs) prior to onset. The k-means clustering of key features in the anomalous temperature and zonal wind identifies the two groups. Composite analyses show different evolution prior to developing a similar ridge{\textendash}trough{\textendash}ridge pattern spanning the North Pacific at the onset of CCV hot spells. Backward trajectories show adiabatic heating of air enhanced by anomalous sinking plus horizontal advection as the main mechanisms to create hot lower-tropospheric air just off the Northern California coast, although the paths differ between clusters.The first cluster develops the ridge at the west coast on the day before onset, consistent with wave activity flux traveling across the North Pacific. Air parcels that arrive at the maximum temperature anomaly (just off the Northern California coast) tend to travel a long distance across the Pacific from the west. The second cluster has the ridge in place for several days prior to extreme CCV heat, but this ridge is located farther north, with heat anomaly over the northwestern United States. This ridge expands south as air parcels at midtropospheric levels descend from the northwest while lower-level parcels over land tend to bring hot air from directions ranging from the hot area to the northeast to the desert areas to the southeast. These two types reveal unexpected dynamical complexity, hint at different remote associations, and expand the assessment needed of climate models{\textquoteright} simulations of these heat waves.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Lee, Yun-Young and Grotjahn, Richard},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1201--1217},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/G6GQ7E3A/Lee and Grotjahn - 2015 - California Central Valley Summer Heat Waves Form T.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/3M5MP2MU/JCLI-D-15-0270.html:text/html}
}

@article{grotjahn_identifying_2011,
	title = {Identifying extreme hottest days from large scale upper air data: a pilot scheme to find {California} {Central} {Valley} summertime maximum surface temperatures},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	shorttitle = {Identifying extreme hottest days from large scale upper air data},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-011-0999-z},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-011-0999-z},
	abstract = {A pilot scheme uses upper air data from a few extreme hottest days to identify those and other extreme hottest days measured by 3 stations sampling the California Central Valley (CV). Prior work showed that CV extreme heat wave onsets have characteristic large scale patterns in many upper-air variables; those patterns also occur for the hottest days. A pilot scheme uses areas of two upper-air variables with high significance and consistency to forecast extreme surface temperatures. The scheme projects key parts of composite patterns for one or more variables onto daily weather maps of the corresponding variables resulting in a {\textquoteleft}circulation index{\textquoteright} for each day. The circulation index measures how similar the pattern on that day is to the composite patterns in areas dynamically relevant to a CV extremely hot day, with a larger value for a stronger match and larger amplitude. The scheme is tested on the development period (1979{\textendash}1988) and on the subsequent 18 year {\textquoteleft}independent{\textquoteright} period (1989{\textendash}2006). The pilot scheme captures about half of the rare events in the development period, with similar skill for the independent period. Based only on 16 days of extreme heat in the first 10 years, the scheme is not intended to represent the general distribution; however the circulation index has similar kurtosis, variance, and skewness as the observed maximum temperatures. Properties of the high end tail of the distribution are notably improved by adding the second predictor. The scheme outperforms simply using 850 hPa temperature above the CV.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Clim Dyn},
	author = {Grotjahn, Richard},
	month = aug,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {587--604},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/7K3DSQMA/Grotjahn - 2011 - Identifying extreme hottest days from large scale .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/AEC2CYK6/s00382-011-0999-z.html:text/html}
}

@article{ullrich_tempestextremes:_2017,
	title = {{TempestExtremes}: a framework for scale-insensitive pointwise feature tracking on unstructured grids},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1991-9603},
	shorttitle = {{TempestExtremes}},
	url = {https://www.geosci-model-dev.net/10/1069/2017/},
	doi = {10.5194/gmd-10-1069-2017},
	abstract = {This paper describes a new open-source software framework for automated pointwise feature tracking that is applicable to a wide array of climate datasets using either structured or unstructured grids. Common climatological pointwise features include tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones and tropical easterly waves. To enable support for a wide array of detection schemes, a suite of algorithmic kernels have been developed that capture the core functionality of algorithmic tracking routines throughout the literature. A review of efforts related to pointwise feature tracking from the past 3 decades is included. Selected results using both reanalysis datasets and unstructured grid simulations are provided.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-22},
	journal = {Geosci. Model Dev.},
	author = {Ullrich, P. A. and Zarzycki, C. M.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1069--1090},
	file = {Geosci. Model Dev. PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/JY8LWSXS/Ullrich and Zarzycki - 2017 - TempestExtremes a framework for scale-insensitive.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{jaccard_nouvelles_1908,
	title = {Nouvelles {Recherches} {Sur} {La} {Distribution} {Florale}},
	volume = {44},
	journal = {Bulletin de la Soci{\'e}t{\'e} vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles},
	author = {Jaccard, Paul},
	year = {1908},
	pages = {223--270}
}

@article{croci-maspoli_multifaceted_2007,
	title = {A {Multifaceted} {Climatology} of {Atmospheric} {Blocking} and {Its} {Recent} {Linear} {Trend}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI4029.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI4029.1},
	abstract = {A dynamically based climatology is derived for Northern Hemisphere atmospheric blocking events. Blocks are viewed as large amplitude, long-lasting, and negative potential vorticity (PV) anomalies located beneath the dynamical tropopause. The derived climatology [based on the 40-yr European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Re-Analysis (ERA-40)] provides a concise, coherent, and illuminating description of the main physical characteristics of blocks and the accompanying linear trends. The latitude{\textendash}longitude distribution of blocking frequency captures the standard bimodal geographical distribution with major peaks over the North Atlantic and eastern North Pacific in all four seasons. The accompanying pattern for the age distribution, the genesis{\textendash}lysis regions, and the track of blocks reveals that 1) younger blocks (1{\textendash}4 days) are more prevalent at lower latitudes whereas significantly older blocks (up to 12 days) are located at higher latitudes; 2) genesis is confined predominantly to the two major ocean basins and in a zonal band between 40{\textdegree} and 50{\textdegree}N latitude, whereas lysis is more dispersed but with clear preference to higher latitudes; and 3) the general northeastward{\textendash}west-northwest movement of blocks in the genesis{\textendash}lysis phase also exhibits subtle seasonal and intra- and interbasin differences. Examination of the intensity and spatial-scale changes during the blocking life cycle suggests that in the mean a block{\textquoteright}s evolution is independent of the genesis region and its eventual duration. A novel analysis of blocking trends reveals significant negative trends in winter over Greenland and in spring over the North Pacific. It is shown that the changes over Greenland are linked to the number of blocking episodes, whereas a neighboring trend signal to the south is linked to higher-frequency anticyclonic systems. Furthermore, evidence is adduced that changes in blocking frequency contribute seminally to tropopause height trends.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-06-19},
	journal = {J. Climate},
	author = {Croci-Maspoli, M. and Schwierz, C. and Davies, H. C.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {633--649},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/YYX99PRL/Croci-Maspoli et al. - 2007 - A Multifaceted Climatology of Atmospheric Blocking.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/HPXEUS6X/JCLI4029.html:text/html}
}

@article{mendes_relationship_nodate,
	title = {The relationship between the {Antarctic} oscillation and blocking events over the {South} {Pacific} and {Atlantic} {Oceans}},
	volume = {34},
	copyright = {{\textcopyright} 2013 Royal Meteorological Society},
	issn = {1097-0088},
	url = {https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/joc.3729},
	doi = {10.1002/joc.3729},
	abstract = {It is known that blocking events have impacts on the behaviour of transient systems and affect the weather in southern continental regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Since the main mode of variability in Southern Hemisphere, the annular mode, or Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), changes the extratropical atmospheric circulation, the blocking characteristics over Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are analysed in this study, in terms of the two opposing phases of the AAO. The characteristics of atmospheric flow patterns and blocking events are analysed as a function of season during the period 1979{\textendash}2000. The relative frequency of blocked days is different for each AAO phase. Maximum duration and number of events over the Southwestern Pacific and South Atlantic regions occur in the positive phase, while the blocking activity over the Southeastern Pacific region is similar in the two phases but the persistence is higher in the negative phase. The atmospheric anomalous centres associated with middle latitude and polar AAO signals, as well as the behaviour of subtropical and polar jets are discussed in relation to the blocking characteristics. Convection over South America is analysed for blocking periods in each AAO phase and is discussed based on anomalous circulation in each phase. Wavetrain patterns over the South Pacific and variations in intensity of jet streams induce anomalous circulation over South America, which are associated with the track and persistence of transient systems over Southeastern South America and with convection over the continent.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-06-20},
	journal = {International Journal of Climatology},
	author = {Mendes, Monica Cristina Dami{\~a}o and Cavalcanti, Iracema Fonseca Albuquerque},
	keywords = {Southern Hemisphere, Antarctic Oscillation, blocking events},
	pages = {529--544},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/36N4I9ZT/Mendes and Cavalcanti - The relationship between the Antarctic oscillation.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/mariellep/Zotero/storage/JZVVTE2H/joc.html:text/html}
}