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Change-Scores.Rmd
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Change-Scores.Rmd
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---
title: "Change Scores"
knit: (function(input_file, encoding) {
out_dir <- 'docs';
rmarkdown::render(input_file,
encoding=encoding,
output_file=file.path(dirname(input_file), out_dir, 'index.html'))})
author: "Manjari Narayan"
date:
output: html_document
---
```{r setup, include=FALSE}
knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = TRUE)
```
## R Markdown
This is an R Markdown document. Markdown is a simple formatting syntax for authoring HTML, PDF, and MS Word documents. For more details on using R Markdown see <http://rmarkdown.rstudio.com>.
When you click the **Knit** button a document will be generated that includes both content as well as the output of any embedded R code chunks within the document. You can embed an R code chunk like this:
```{r cars}
summary(cars)
```
## References
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Bajorski, Peter, and John Petkau. 1999. “Nonparametric Two-Sample Comparisons of Changes on Ordinal Responses.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 94 (447): 970–78.
Berry, Donald A., and Gregory D. Ayers. 2006. “Symmetrized Percent Change for Treatment Comparisons.” The American Statistician 60 (1): 27–31.
Bland, J. Martin, and Douglas G. Altman. 2011. “Comparisons against Baseline within Randomised Groups Are Often Used and Can Be Highly Misleading.” Trials 12 (December): 264.
Breukelen, Gerard J. P. van. 2013. “ANCOVA Versus CHANGE From Baseline in Nonrandomized Studies: The Difference.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 48 (6): 895–922.
Brogan, Donna R., and Michael H. Kutner. 1980. “Comparative Analyses of Pretest-Posttest Research Designs.” The American Statistician 34 (4): 229–32.
Cole, T. J. 2000. “Sympercents: Symmetric Percentage Differences on the 100 Log(e) Scale Simplify the Presentation of Log Transformed Data.” Statistics in Medicine 19 (22): 3109–25.
Cronbach, Lee J., and Lita Furby. 1970. “How We Should Measure‘ Change’: Or Should We?” Psychological Bulletin 74 (1): 68.
Data, Licensing. 2004. “Two Statistical Paradoxes in the Interpretation of Group Differences: Illustrated with.” The American Statistician 58 (2): 117–23.
Follmann, D. A. 1991. “The Effect of Screening on Some Pretest-Posttest Test Variances.” Biometrics 47 (2): 763–71.
Gollwitzer, Mario, Oliver Christ, and Gunnar Lemmer. 2014. “Individual Differences Make a Difference: On the Use and the Psychometric Properties of Difference Scores in Social Psychology.” European Journal of Social Psychology 44 (7): 673–82.
Holland, Paul W., and Donald B. Rubin. 1982. “ON LORD’S PARADOX.” ETS Research Report Series 1982 (2): i – 41.
———. 1986. “Research Designs and Causal Inferences: On Lord’s Paradox.” In Survey Research Designs: Towards a Better Understanding of Their Costs and Benefits: Prepared under the Auspices of the Working Group on the Comparative Evaluation of Longitudinal Surveys Social Science Research Council, edited by Robert W. Pearson and Robert F. Boruch, 7–37. New York, NY: Springer US.
Kaiser, L. 1989. “Adjusting for Baseline: Change or Percentage Change?” Statistics in Medicine 8 (10): 1183–90.
Kim, Yongnam, and Peter M. Steiner. 2019. “Gain Scores Revisited: A Graphical Models Perspective.” Sociological Methods & Research, February, 0049124119826155.
Kronmal, Richard A. 1993. “Spurious Correlation and the Fallacy of the Ratio Standard Revisited.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A, 156 (3): 379–92.
Laird, Nan. 1983. “Further Comparative Analyses of Pretest-Posttest Research Designs.” The American Statistician 37 (4a): 329–30.
Leo Tornqvist, Pentti Vartia And Yrjo O. Vartia. 1985. “How Should Relative Changes Be Measured?” The American Statistician 39: 43–46.
Lord, Frederic M. 1958. “The Utilization of Unreliable Difference Scores.” Journal of Educational Psychology 49 (3): 150.
Lund, Thorleif. 1999. “Lord’s Paradox Re‐examined.” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 43 (1): 41–55.
Maris, Eric. 1998a. “Covariance Adjustment versus Change Scores Revisited.” Psychological Methods. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.3.309.
———. 1998b. “Covariance Adjustment versus Gain Scores—revisited.” Psychological Methods 3 (3): 309.
Pearl, Judea. 2016. “Lord’s Paradox Revisited – (Oh Lord! Kumbaya!).” Journal of Causal Inference 4 (2): 143.
Peter, J. Paul, Gilbert A. Churchill, and Tom J. Brown. 1993. “Caution in the Use of Difference Scores in Consumer Research.” The Journal of Consumer Research 19 (4): 655–62.
Rogosa, David R., and John B. Willett. 1983. “Demonstrating the Reliability of the Difference Score in the Measurement of Change.” Journal of Educational Measurement 20 (4): 335–43.
Senn, Stephen. 2006. “Change from Baseline and Analysis of Covariance Revisited.” Statistics in Medicine 25 (24): 4334–44.
Singer, Julio M., and Dalton F. Andrade. 1997. “Regression Models for the Analysis of Pretest/Posttest Data.” Biometrics 53 (2): 729–35.
Theobald, Roddy, and Thomas Richardson. 2015. “LORD’S PARADOX AND TARGETED INTERVENTIONS.” https://aefpweb.org/sites/default/files/webform/41/Theobald%20and%20Richardson%20(AEFP).pdf.
Thomas, D. Roland, and Bruno D. Zumbo. 2012. “Difference Scores From the Point of View of Reliability and Repeated-Measures ANOVA: In Defense of Difference Scores for Data Analysis.” Educational and Psychological Measurement 72 (1): 37–43.
Tu, Yu-Kang, David Gunnell, and Mark S. Gilthorpe. 2008. “Simpson’s Paradox, Lord's Paradox, and Suppression Effects Are the Same Phenomenon--the Reversal Paradox.” Emerging Themes in Epidemiology 5 (January): 2.
Vickers, A. J. 2001. “The Use of Percentage Change from Baseline as an Outcome in a Controlled Trial Is Statistically Inefficient: A Simulation Study.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 1 (June): 6.
———. 2004. “Change/percent Change from Baseline.” Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471667196.ess7245.
Wainer, Howard, and Lisa M. Brown. 2006. “28 Three Statistical Paradoxes in the Interpretation of Group Differences: Illustrated with Medical School Admission and Licensing Data.” In Handbook of Statistics, edited by C. R. Rao and S. Sinharay, 26:893–918. Elsevier.
Xiao, Zhimin, Steve Higgins, and Adetayo Kasim. 2017. “An Empirical Unravelling of Lord’s Paradox.” arXiv [stat.ME]. arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/1708.03796.
Zumbo, Bruno D. 1999. “The Simple Difference Score as an Inherently Poor Measure of Change: Some Reality, Much Mythology.”