z.d

/// Multiple precision integers (Z).
module gmp.z;

debug import std.stdio : writeln;
import std.exception : enforce;
import core.lifetime : move;
import std.traits : Unsigned, Unqual, isIntegral, isUnsigned; // used by expression templates
import gmp.traits;

/// Call version(gmp_test) unittests taking long to execute.
// version = version(gmp_test) unittestLong;

/// Is `true` if type `T` can be evaluated to a `MpZ` value.
enum isMpZExpr(T) = (is(Unqual!(typeof(T.eval())) == MpZ) ||
					 is(Unqual!(typeof(T.eval())) == CopyableMpZ)); // which returns an `MpZ`
/// Is `true` if type `T` is lazy (not yet evaluated) `MpZ`-expression.
enum isLazyMpZExpr(T) = (!is(Unqual!T == MpZ) &&			// exclude direct value
						 isMpZExpr!T);

/** WordEndianess of serialization in `MpZ.serialize` and
	unserialization-construction from integer array.
 */
enum WordEndianess
{
	host,
	bigEndian,
	littleEndian,
}

/** Word-order of serialization in `MpZ.serialize` and
	unserialization-construction from integer array.
 */
enum WordOrder
{
	mostSignificantWordFirst,
	leastSignificantWordFirst,
}

/** Rounding used in division variants `cdiv`, `fdiv` and `tdiv`.

	TODO: Make use of.
 */
enum Rounding
{
	ceiling,					///< Used by functions named `..._cdiv_...`
	floor,						///< Used by functions named `..._fdiv_...`
	truncate					///< Used by functions named `..._tdiv_...`
}

// TODO: use these imports instead of the ones below
// import deimos.gmp.gmp;
// import deimos.gmp.integer;

/** Arbitrary (multi) precision signed integer (Z).

	Wrapper for GNU MP (GMP)'s type `mpz_t` and functions `__gmpz_.*`.

	If `cow` is `false` copying (via assignment and parameter passing by value)
	is only possible explicitly via `.dup` (Rust-style) otherwise copying is
	automatic and does copy-on-write (CoW) of the internal data via reference
	counting (ARC) (Swift-style).
 */
private struct _Z(bool cow)
{
	/// Put `string` to sink in base `base`.
	void toString(scope void delegate(scope const(char)[]) @safe sink,
				  in uint base = defaultBase,
				  in bool upperCaseDigits = false) const @trusted
		in(-2 <= base && base <= -36 ||
		   +2 <= base && base <= +62)
	{
		import core.memory : pureMalloc;
		if (isZero) { return sink(`0`); }
		if (isOne) { return sink(`1`); }
		const size = sizeInBase(base); // NOTE: one too much for some values
		scope char[] str = (cast(char*)pureMalloc(size + 1))[0 .. size + 1]; // one extra for minus sign
		scope(exit) qualifiedFree(str.ptr);
		sink(fillChars(str, base, upperCaseDigits));
	}

pure:
	/** Needed below because `mpz_init_set_str` is currently the only way to
	 * construct from an array of characters.
	 */
	private enum smallBufSize = 1024;

	/** Construct from `value` in base `base`.

		If `base` is 0 it's guessed from contents of `value`.
	*/
	this(scope const(char)[] value, uint base = 0) @trusted // TODO: Use Optional/Nullable when value is nan, or inf
		in(base == 0 ||
		   (+2 <= base && base <= +62))
	{
		if (value.length >= 2 &&
			value[0] == '0' &&
			((base == 16 &&
			  (value[1] == 'x' ||
			   value[1] == 'X')) ||
			 (base == 2 &&
			  (value[1] == 'b' ||
			   value[1] == 'B')) ||
			 (base == 8 &&
			  (value[1] == 'o' ||
			   value[1] == 'O'))))
		{
			value = value[2 .. $]; // __gmpz_init_set_str doesn’t allow `"0x"` prefix if `base` given
		}
		char[smallBufSize] buf;
		char* stringz;
		import std.algorithm.searching : canFind;
		if (value.length + 1 <= smallBufSize &&
			value[0] != '-' &&	 // TODO: support minus sign
			!value.canFind('_')) // TODO: support underscore
		{
			buf[0 .. value.length] = value;
			buf[value.length] = '\0'; // null terminator
			stringz = buf.ptr;
		}
		else
		{
			stringz = _allocStringzCopyOf(value); // TODO: append inline trailing zero if possible otherwise make this stack allocated
		}
		scope(exit)
		{
			if (stringz != buf.ptr)
				qualifiedFree(stringz);
		}
		immutable int status = __gmpz_init_set_str(_ptr, stringz, base);
		enforce(status == 0, "Parameter `value` does not contain an integer");
	}

	static typeof(this) fromBinaryString(scope const(char)[] value) pure @safe
	{
		return typeof(return)(value, 2);
	}

	static typeof(this) fromHexString(scope const(char)[] value) pure @safe
	{
		return typeof(return)(value, 16);
	}

nothrow:

	/// Convert to `string` in base `base`.
	string toString(in uint base = defaultBase,
					in bool upperCaseDigits = false) scope const @trusted
		in(-2 <= base && base <= -36 ||
		   +2 <= base && base <= +62)
	{
		if (isZero) { return `0`; }
		if (isOne) { return `1`; }
		const size = sizeInBase(base); // NOTE: one too much for some values
		char[] str = new char[](size + 1); // one extra for minus sign
		__gmpz_get_str(str.ptr, base, _ptr); // fill it
		return fillChars(str, base, upperCaseDigits);
	}

	/** Convert in base `base` into `chars` of length `length`.

		Returns: char[] which must be freed manually with `pureFree` thereby
		making this `@system`.
	*/
	char[] toChars(in uint base = defaultBase,
				   in bool upperCaseDigits = false) scope const @system @nogc
		in(-2 <= base && base <= -36 ||
		   +2 <= base && base <= +62)
	{
		import core.memory : pureMalloc;
		if (isZero ||
			isOne)
		{
			char[] chars = (cast(char*)pureMalloc(1))[0 .. 1];
			if (isZero)
				chars[0] = '0';
			else if (isOne)
				chars[0] = '1';
			return chars;
		}
		const size = sizeInBase(base); // NOTE: one too much for some values
		char[] chars = (cast(char*)pureMalloc(size + 1))[0 .. size + 1]; // one extra for minus sign
		return fillChars(chars, base, upperCaseDigits);
	}

	private char[] fillChars(char[] chars,
							 in uint base = defaultBase,
							 in bool upperCaseDigits = false) const @system @nogc
		in(-2 <= base && base <= -36 ||
		   +2 <= base && base <= +62)
	{
		__gmpz_get_str(chars.ptr, base, _ptr); // fill it
		import std.ascii : isAlphaNum, isLower, toUpper;
		while (chars.length &&
			   !chars[$ - 1].isAlphaNum)
			chars = chars[0 .. $ - 1]; // skip trailing garbage
		if (upperCaseDigits)
			foreach (ref e; chars)
				if (e.isLower)
					e = e.toUpper;
		return chars;
	}

	void toString(Writer)(ref Writer writer, // `mir.appender` compliant
						  in uint base = defaultBase,
						  in bool upperCaseDigits = false) const @nogc @trusted
		if (is(typeof(writer.put((const(char)[]).init))))
	{
		import core.memory : pureFree;
		if (isZero) { return writer.put("0"); }
		if (isOne) { return writer.put("1"); }
		auto chars = toChars(base, upperCaseDigits);
		scope(exit) pureFree(chars.ptr);
		writer.put(chars);
	}

	/// Get the unique hash of the `_Z` value suitable for use in a hash table.
	size_t toHash() const @trusted
	{
		import core.internal.hash : hashOf;
		typeof(return) hash = limbCount;
		foreach (immutable i; 0 .. limbCount)
			hash ^= _limbs[i].hashOf;
		return hash;
	}

	/** Serialize `this` into a new GC-allocated slice of words, each word of
		type `Word`.

		It's format defined by:
		- `order`: the most significant word `first` or `last` for least significant first
		- `endian` can be `bigEndian`, `littleEndian` or `host` default
		- the most significant `nails` bits of each word are unused and set to zero, this can be 0 to produce full words

		Returns: a new GC-allocated slice containing the words produced.
	*/
	Word[] serialize(Word)(WordOrder order, WordEndianess endian, size_t nails) const @trusted
	if (isUnsigned!Word)
	{
		const numb = 8 * Word.sizeof - nails;
		size_t count = (__gmpz_sizeinbase(_ptr, 2) + numb-1) / numb;
		return serialize(new Word[count], order, Word.sizeof, endian, nails);
	}

@nogc:

	/** No default construction for now, because `mpz_init` initialize
		`__mpz_struct`-fields to non-zero values.

		TODO: Allow default construction by delaying call to initialize().
	*/
	// @disable this();

	/// Construct empty (undefined) from explicit `null`.
	this(typeof(null)) @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		initialize();			 // TODO: is there a faster way?
		assert(this == _Z.init); // if this is same as default
	}

	/// Construct from expression `expr`.
	this(Expr)(Expr expr)
	if (isLazyMpZExpr!Expr)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		// TODO: ok to just assume zero-initialized contents at `_z` before...
		this = expr;			// ...calling this.opAssign ?x
	}

	/** Construct from `value`. */
	this(T)(T value) @trusted
	if (isArithmetic!T)
	{
		// TODO: add support for static initialization
		// if (!__ctfe)
		// {
		pragma(inline, true);

		static if	  (isUnsigned!T) __gmpz_init_set_ui(_ptr, value);
		else static if (isFloating!T) __gmpz_init_set_d(_ptr, value);
		else						  __gmpz_init_set_si(_ptr, value); // isSigned integral
		// }
		// else
		// {
		//	 if (value == 0)
		//	 {
		//		 reinterpret_to_size_if_sizeof_and_zero();
		//	 }
		//	 else
		//	 {
		//		 assert(0, "Cannot set non-zero value at ctfe");
		//	 }
		// }
	}

	/** Constucts number from serialized binary array.

		Arguments:
		- `rop` : array of unsinged values
		- `order`: the most significant word `first` or `last` for least significant first
		- `size` in bytes of each word
		- `endian` can be `bigEndian`, `littleEndian` or `host` default
		- the most significant `nails` bits of each word are unused and set to zero, this can be 0 to produce full words
	*/
	this(T)(const T[] rop, WordOrder order, size_t size, WordEndianess endian, size_t nails)
	if (isUnsigned!T)
	{

		int realOrder;
		final switch(order)
		{
			case WordOrder.mostSignificantWordFirst:  realOrder = 1;  break;
			case WordOrder.leastSignificantWordFirst: realOrder = -1; break;
		}

		int realEndian;
		final switch(endian)
		{
			case WordEndianess.littleEndian: realEndian = -1; break;
			case WordEndianess.bigEndian:	realEndian =  1; break;
			case WordEndianess.host:		 realEndian =  0; break;
		}

		__gmpz_init(_ptr);
		__gmpz_import(_ptr, rop.length, realOrder, size, realEndian, nails, rop.ptr);
	}

	/// Mersenne prime, M(p) = 2 ^^ p - 1
	static _Z mersennePrime(Integral)(Integral p)
	if (isIntegral!Integral)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		return typeof(this).pow(2UL, p) - 1;
	}

	// /// Construct copy of `value`.
	// this(ref const _Z value) @trusted
	// {
	//	 __gmpz_init_set(_ptr, value._ptr);
	// }

	// /// Construct copy of `value`.
	// this(_Z value) @trusted
	// {
	// import core.lifetime : moveEmplace;
	//	 moveEmplace(value, this); // fast
	// }

	static if (cow)
	{
		void selfdupIfAliased() scope pure nothrow @nogc @safe {
			pragma(inline, true);
			if (_refCountCopies >= 1)
				this = this.dup();
		}
		this(this) scope pure nothrow @nogc @safe
		{
			pragma(inline, true);
			_refCountCopies += 1;
		}
	}
	else
	{
		@disable this(this);
	}

	/// Swap content of `this` with `rhs`.
	void swap()(ref _Z rhs) scope pure nothrow @nogc @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		import std.algorithm.mutation : swap;
		swap(this, rhs); // faster than __gmpz_swap(_ptr, rhs._ptr);
	}

	/// (Duplicate) Copy `this`.
	_Z dup() scope const pure nothrow @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = void;
		__gmpz_init_set(y._ptr, _ptr);
		static if (cow) { y._refCountCopies = 0; }
		return y;
	}

	/// Assign from `rhs`.
	ref _Z opAssign()(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) scope return @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_set(_ptr, rhs._ptr);
		return this;
	}
	/// ditto
	ref _Z opAssign(Expr)(auto ref Expr rhs) scope return @trusted
	if (isLazyMpZExpr!Expr)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		rhs.evalTo(this);
		return this;
	}
	/// ditto
	ref _Z opAssign(T)(T rhs) scope return @trusted
	if (isArithmetic!T)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		assertInitialized();
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		static	  if (isUnsigned!T) __gmpz_set_ui(_ptr, rhs);
		else static if (isFloating!T) __gmpz_set_d(_ptr, rhs);
		else static if (isSigned!T)   __gmpz_set_si(_ptr, rhs);
		else static assert(0);
		return this;
	}

	/** Assign `this` from `string` `rhs` interpreted in base `base`.
		If `base` is 0 it's guessed from contents of `value`.
	*/
	ref _Z fromString(scope const(char)[] rhs, uint base = 0) scope return @trusted
	{
		assert(base == 0 || (base >= 2 && base <= 62));
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		char* stringz = _allocStringzCopyOf(rhs);
		immutable int status = __gmpz_set_str(_ptr, stringz, base);
		qualifiedFree(stringz);
		assert(status == 0, "Parameter `rhs` does not contain an integer");
		return this;
	}

	/// Destruct `this`.
	~this() scope @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (_z._mp_d)
		{
			static if (cow)
			{
				if (_refCountCopies >= 1)
				{
					_z._mp_d = null;	// prevent GC from scanning this memory
					return;
				}
			}
			__gmpz_clear(_ptr);
			_z._mp_d = null;	// prevent GC from scanning this memory
		}
	}

	/// Returns: `true` iff `this` equals `rhs`.
	bool opEquals()(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (_ptr == rhs._ptr)   // fast equality
			return true;		// fast bailout
		return __gmpz_cmp(_ptr, rhs._ptr) == 0;
	}
	/// ditto
	bool opEquals(Rhs)(Rhs rhs) const @trusted
	if (isArithmetic!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (rhs == 0)
			return isZero;	  // optimization
		if (rhs == 1)
			return isOne;	  // optimization
		static	  if (isUnsigned!Rhs) return __gmpz_cmp_ui(_ptr, cast(ulong)rhs) == 0;
		else static if (isFloating!Rhs) return __gmpz_cmp_d(_ptr, cast(double)rhs) == 0; // TODO: correct to do this cast here?
		else							return __gmpz_cmp_si(_ptr, cast(long)rhs) == 0;	// isSigned integral
	}

	/// Compare `this` to `rhs`.
	int opCmp()(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (rhs == 0)
			return sgn();	   // optimization
		return __gmpz_cmp(_ptr, rhs._ptr);
	}
	/// ditto
	int opCmp(T)(T rhs) const @trusted
	if (isArithmetic!T)
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		if (rhs == 0)
			return sgn();	   // optimization
		static	  if (isUnsigned!T) return __gmpz_cmp_ui(_ptr, rhs);
		else static if (isFloating!T) return __gmpz_cmp_d(_ptr, rhs);
		else						  return __gmpz_cmp_si(_ptr, rhs); // isSigned integral
	}

	/// Cast to `bool`.
	bool opCast(T : bool)() scope const
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return !isZero;
	}

	/// Cast to arithmetic type `T`.
	T opCast(T)() scope const @trusted
	if (isArithmetic!T)
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static	  if (isUnsigned!T) return cast(T)__gmpz_get_ui(_ptr);
		else static if (isFloating!T) return cast(T)__gmpz_get_d(_ptr);
		else						  return cast(T)__gmpz_get_si(_ptr); // isSigned integral
	}

	/** Get the value of this as a `long`, or +/- `long.max` if outside the
		representable range. */
	long toLong() scope const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		// TODO: can probably be optimized
		if (this <= long.min)
			return long.min;
		else if (this >= long.max)
			return long.max;
		else
			return cast(long)__gmpz_get_si(_ptr);
	}

	/** Get the value of this as a `int`, or +/- `int.max` if outside the
		representable range.
	*/
	int toInt() const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		// TODO: can probably be optimized
		if (this <= int.min)
			return int.min;
		else if (this >= int.max)
			return int.max;
		else
			return cast(int)__gmpz_get_si(_ptr);
	}

	/** Get `this` `s` `rhs`. */
	_Z opBinary(string s)(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) const @trusted // direct value
		if ((s == "+" || s == "-" ||
			 s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "%" ||
			 s == "&" || s == "|" || s == "^" ||
			 s == "<<" || s == ">>"))
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (!__traits(isRef, rhs)) // r-value `rhs`
		{
			_Z* mut_rhs = (cast(_Z*)(&rhs)); // @trusted because `_Z` has no aliased indirections
			static	  if (s == "+") __gmpz_add(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "-") __gmpz_sub(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "*") __gmpz_mul(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "/")
			{
				assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
				__gmpz_tdiv_q(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			}
			else static if (s == "%")
			{
				assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
				const neg = rhs.isNegative;
				__gmpz_mod(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
				if (neg)
					mut_rhs.negate();
			}
			else static if (s == "&") __gmpz_and(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "|") __gmpz_ior(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "^") __gmpz_xor(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "<<")
			{
				if (rhs.isPositive())
					__gmpz_mul_2exp(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
				else
					__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)-rhs); // `z << -1` becomes `z >> 1`
			}
			else static if (s == ">>")
			{
				if (rhs.isPositive())
					__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
				else
					__gmpz_mul_2exp(mut_rhs._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)-rhs); // `z >> -1` becomes `z << 1`
			}
			else static assert(0);
			return move(*mut_rhs); // TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
		}
		else
		{
			typeof(return) y = null;
			static	  if (s == "+") __gmpz_add(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "-") __gmpz_sub(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "*") __gmpz_mul(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "/")
			{
				assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
				__gmpz_tdiv_q(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			}
			else static if (s == "%")
			{
				assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
				const neg = rhs.isNegative;
				__gmpz_mod(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
				if (neg)
					y.negate();
			}
			else static if (s == "&") __gmpz_and(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "|") __gmpz_ior(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "^") __gmpz_xor(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
			else static if (s == "<<")
			{
				if (rhs.isPositive())
					__gmpz_mul_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
				else
					__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)-rhs); // `z << -1` becomes `z >> 1`
			}
			else static if (s == ">>")
			{
				if (rhs.isPositive())
					__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
				else
					__gmpz_mul_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)-rhs); // `z >> -1` becomes `z << 1`
			}
			else static assert(0);
			return y;
		}
	}

	/// ditto
	_Z opBinary(string s, Rhs)(auto ref const Rhs rhs) const
	if (isLazyMpZExpr!Rhs && // lazy value
		(s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "%"))
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static assert(false, "TODO");
	}

	/// ditto
	_Z opBinary(string s, Rhs)(Rhs rhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "/" /* || s == "%"*/ || s == "^^" || s == "<<" || s == ">>") &&
		isUnsigned!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		static	  if (s == "+") __gmpz_add_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "-") __gmpz_sub_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "*") __gmpz_mul_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "/")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		// NOTE: handled by call to `mpz_tdiv_r_ui` below
		// else static if (s == "%")
		// {
		//	 assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
		//	 __gmpz_mod_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		// }
		else static if (s == "^^") __gmpz_pow_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "<<") __gmpz_mul_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == ">>") __gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static assert(0);
		return y;
	}

	/// ditto
	_Z opBinary(string s, Rhs)(Rhs rhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "^^" || s == "<<" || s == ">>") &&
		isSigned!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;

		static	  if (s == "+")
		{
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -rhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_sub_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
			}
			else
				__gmpz_add_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "-")
		{
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
				__gmpz_add_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, -rhs); // x - (-y) == x + y
			else
				__gmpz_sub_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs); // rhs is positive
		}
		else static if (s == "*")
		{
			__gmpz_mul_si(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "/")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -rhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
				y.negate();	 // negate result
			}
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "^^")
		{
			assert(rhs >= 0, "TODO: Negative power exponent needs MpQ return");
			__gmpz_pow_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "<<")
		{
			if (rhs >= 0)
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, -rhs); // `z << -1` becomes `z >> 1`
		}
		else static if (s == ">>")
		{
			if (rhs >= 0)
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(y._ptr, _ptr, -rhs); // `z >> -1` becomes `z << 1`
		}
		else static assert(0);
		return y;
	}

	/// Remainer propagates modulus type.
	Unqual!Rhs opBinary(string s, Rhs)(Rhs rhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "%") &&
		isIntegral!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
		_Z y = null;

		static if (isSigned!Rhs)
		{
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -cast(int)rhs; // make it positive
				return cast(typeof(return))-__gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
			}
			else
				return cast(typeof(return))__gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (isUnsigned!Rhs)
			return cast(typeof(return))__gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else
			static assert(0);
	}

	/// Get an unsigned type `lhs` divided by `this`.
	_Z opBinaryRight(string s, Lhs)(Lhs lhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "%") &&
		isUnsigned!Lhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;

		static	  if (s == "+")
			__gmpz_add_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, lhs); // commutative
		else static if (s == "-")
			__gmpz_ui_sub(y._ptr, lhs, _ptr);
		else static if (s == "*")
			__gmpz_mul_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, lhs); // commutative
		else static if (s == "%")
		{
			assert(this != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_r(y._ptr, _Z(lhs)._ptr, _ptr); // convert `lhs` to _Z
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		return y;
	}

	/// Get a signed type `lhs` divided by `this`.
	_Z opBinaryRight(string s, Lhs)(Lhs lhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "%") &&
		isSigned!Lhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (s == "+" ||
				   s == "*")
		{
			return opBinary!s(lhs); // commutative reuse
		}
		else static if (s == "-")
		{
			typeof(return) y = null;

			if (lhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `lhs == lhs.min`
			{
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -lhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_add_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
			}
			else
				__gmpz_sub_ui(y._ptr, _ptr, lhs);
			y.negate();
			return y;
		}
		else static if (s == "%")
		{
			typeof(return) y = null;

			assert(this != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_r(y._ptr, _Z(lhs)._ptr, _ptr); // convert `lhs` to _Z
			return y;
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
	}

	/// Dividend propagates quotient type to signed.
	Unqual!Lhs opBinaryRight(string s, Lhs)(Lhs lhs) const @trusted
	if ((s == "/") &&
		isIntegral!Lhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		_Z y = null; // TODO: avoid if !__traits(isRef, this)

		assert(this != 0, "Divison by zero");
		__gmpz_tdiv_q(y._ptr, _Z(lhs)._ptr, _ptr);
		static	  if (isSigned!Lhs)
			return cast(typeof(return))y;
		else static if (isUnsigned!Lhs)
		{
			import std.traits : Signed;
			return cast(Signed!(typeof(return)))y;
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
	}

	/// Exponentation.
	_Z opBinaryRight(string s, Base)(Base base) const
	if ((s == "^^") &&
		isIntegral!Base)
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static assert(false, "Convert `this _Z` exponent to `ulong` and calculate power via static method `pow()`");
		// _Z exp = null;
		// __gmpz_pow();
		// return exp;
	}

	/// Operate-assign to `this` from `rhs`.
	ref _Z opOpAssign(string s)(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) scope return @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" ||
		 s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "%" ||
		 s == "&" || s == "|" || s == "^" ||
		 s == "<<" || s == ">>"))
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static	  if (s == "+")
			__gmpz_add(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		else static if (s == "-")
			__gmpz_sub(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		else static if (s == "*")
		{
			if (rhs == -1)
				negate();
			else
				__gmpz_mul(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		}
		else static if (s == "/")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			if (rhs == -1)
				negate();
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		}
		else static if (s == "%")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_r(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		}
		else static if (s == "&")
			__gmpz_and(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		else static if (s == "|")
			__gmpz_ior(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		else static if (s == "^")
			__gmpz_xor(_ptr, _ptr, rhs._ptr);
		else static if (s == "<<")
		{
			if (rhs.isPositive())
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs); // `z << -1` becomes `z >> 1`
		}
		else static if (s == ">>")
		{
			if (rhs.isPositive())
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, cast(mp_bitcnt_t)rhs); // `z >> -1` becomes `z << 1`
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		return this;
	}

	/// ditto
	ref _Z opOpAssign(string s, Rhs)(Rhs rhs) scope return @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "%" || s == "^^" || s == "<<" || s == ">>") &&
		isUnsigned!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static	  if (s == "+")
			__gmpz_add_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "-")
			__gmpz_sub_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "*")
			__gmpz_mul_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "/")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "%")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "^^")
			__gmpz_pow_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == "<<")
			__gmpz_mul_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else static if (s == ">>")
			__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		else
			static assert(0);
		return this;
	}

	/// ditto
	ref _Z opOpAssign(string s, Rhs)(Rhs rhs) scope return @trusted
	if ((s == "+" || s == "-" || s == "*" || s == "/" || s == "%" || s == "^^" || s == "<<" || s == ">>") &&
		isSigned!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static	  if (s == "+")
		{
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				assert(rhs != rhs.min);
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -rhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_sub_ui(_ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
			}
			else
				__gmpz_add_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "-")
		{
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				assert(rhs != rhs.min);

				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -rhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_add_ui(_ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
			}
			else
				__gmpz_sub_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "*")
		{
			if (rhs == -1)
				negate();	   // optimization
			else
				__gmpz_mul_si(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "/")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			if (rhs < 0)		// TODO: handle `rhs == rhs.min`
			{
				immutable ulong pos_rhs = -rhs; // make it positive
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(_ptr, _ptr, pos_rhs);
				negate();
			}
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "%")
		{
			assert(rhs != 0, "Divison by zero");
			__gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "^^")
		{
			assert(rhs >= 0, "Negative exponent");
			__gmpz_pow_ui(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
		}
		else static if (s == "<<")
		{
			if (rhs >= 0)
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, -rhs); // `z << -1` becomes `z >> 1`
		}
		else static if (s == ">>")
		{
			if (rhs >= 0)
				__gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, rhs);
			else
				__gmpz_mul_2exp(_ptr, _ptr, -rhs); // `z >> -1` becomes `z << 1`
		}
		else static assert(0);

		return this;
	}

	/// Returns: `this`.
	ref inout(_Z) opUnary(string s)() inout scope return
	if (s == "+")
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return this;
	}

	/// Negation of `this`.
	_Z opUnary(string s)() const
	if (s == "-")
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = this.dup;
		y.negate();
		return y;
	}

	/// Negation of `this`.
	_Z unaryMinus() const @safe
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		// pragma(msg, "memberFun:", __traits(isRef, this) ? "ref" : "non-ref", " this");
		typeof(return) y = this.dup;
		y.negate();
		return y;
	}

	/** Negate `this` in-place.

		Returns: `void` to make it obvious that `this` is mutated.
	*/
	void negate() @safe
	{
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		pragma(inline, true);
		_z._mp_size = -_z._mp_size; // fast C macro `mpz_neg` in gmp.h
	}

	/** Make `this` the absolute value of itself in-place.

		Returns: `void` to make it obvious that `this` is mutated.
	*/
	void absolute() @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return; } // `__gmpz_abs` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return; } // `__gmpz_abs` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_abs(_ptr, _ptr);
	}
	alias absSelf = absolute;

	/** Make `this` the one's complement value of itself in-place.

		Returns: `void` to make it obvious that `this` is mutated.
	*/
	void onesComplementSelf() @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return; } // `__gmpz_com` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_com(_ptr, _ptr);
	}

	/** Make `this` the square root of itself in-place.

		Returns: `void` to make it obvious that `this` is mutated.
	*/
	void sqrtSelf() @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_sqrt(_ptr, _ptr);
	}

	/** Make `this` the `n`:th root of itself in-place.

		Returns: `true` if computation was exact.
	*/
	bool rootSelf(ulong n) @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return true; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return true; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		const status = __gmpz_root(_ptr, _ptr, n);
		return status != 0;
	}

	/** Make `this` the `n`:th root of itself in-place along with its remainder returned.

		Returns: `rem` to the remainder, u-root ^^ `n`.
	*/
	_Z rootremSelf(ulong n) @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return typeof(return).init; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return typeof(return).init; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		_Z rem;
		__gmpz_rootrem(_ptr, rem._ptr, _ptr, n);
		return move(rem);
	}

	/** Make `this` the square root of itself in-place along with its remainder
		returned.

		Returns: `rem` to the remainder.
	*/
	_Z sqrtremSelf() @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return typeof(return).init; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return typeof(return).init; } // `__gmpz_co` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		_Z rem;
		__gmpz_sqrtrem(_ptr, rem._ptr, _ptr);
		return move(rem);
	}

	/// Increase `this` by one.
	ref _Z opUnary(string s)() scope return @trusted
	if (s == "++")
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		if (isDefaultConstructed) // `__gmpz_add_ui` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
			__gmpz_init_set_si(_ptr, 1);
		else
			__gmpz_add_ui(_ptr, _ptr, 1);
		return this;
	}

	/// Decrease `this` by one.
	ref _Z opUnary(string s)() scope return @trusted
	if (s == "--")
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		if (isDefaultConstructed) // `__gmpz_sub_ui` cannot handle default-constructed `this`
			__gmpz_init_set_si(_ptr, -1);
		else
			__gmpz_sub_ui(_ptr, _ptr, 1);
		return this;
	}

	/// Get `base` raised to the power of `exp`.
	static typeof(this) pow(Base, Exp)(Base base, Exp exp) @trusted
	if (isIntegral!Base &&
		isIntegral!Exp)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		static if (isSigned!Base)
		{
			immutable bool negate = base < 0;
			immutable ubase = cast(ulong)(negate ? -base : base);
		}
		else
		{
			immutable bool negate = false;
			immutable ubase = base;
		}

		static if (isSigned!Exp)
		{
			assert(exp >= 0, "Negative exponent"); // TODO: return mpq?
			immutable uexp = cast(ulong)exp;
		}
		else
			immutable uexp = exp;

		typeof(return) y = null;
		__gmpz_ui_pow_ui(y._ptr, ubase, uexp);
		if (negate &&
			exp & 1)  // if negative odd exponent
			y.negate();

		return y;
	}

	/// Get number of digits in base `base`.
	size_t sizeInBase(uint base) const @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero ||
			isOne)
			return 1;
		else
			return __gmpz_sizeinbase(_ptr, base);
	}

	/** Serialize `this` into an existing pre-allocated slice of words `words`,
		each word of type `Word`.

		It's format defined by:
		- `order`: the most significant word `first` or `last` for least significant first
		- `size` in bytes of each word
		- `endian` can be `bigEndian`, `littleEndian` or `host` default
		- the most significant `nails` bits of each word are unused and set to zero, this can be 0 to produce full words

		Returns: a (sub-)slice of `words` containing only the words produced.
	*/
	Word[] serialize(Word)(return scope Word[] words,
						   WordOrder order, size_t size, WordEndianess endian, size_t nails) const @trusted
	if (isUnsigned!Word)
	{
		assert(words, "Words is empty");

		size_t count;
		debug
		{
			const numb = 8 * size - nails;
			const items = (__gmpz_sizeinbase(_ptr, 2) + numb-1) / numb;
			assert(Word.sizeof * words.length >= items * size ,
				   "Words has not enough space pre-allocated");
		}

		int realOrder;
		final switch(order)
		{
			case WordOrder.mostSignificantWordFirst:  realOrder = 1;  break;
			case WordOrder.leastSignificantWordFirst: realOrder = -1; break;
		}

		int realEndian;
		final switch(endian)
		{
			case WordEndianess.littleEndian: realEndian = -1; break;
			case WordEndianess.bigEndian:	realEndian =  1; break;
			case WordEndianess.host:		 realEndian =  0; break;
		}

		__gmpz_export(words.ptr, &count, realOrder, size, realEndian, nails, _ptr);
		return words[0 .. count];
	}


	/// Returns: `true` iff `this` fits in a `T`.
	bool fitsIn(T)() const @trusted
	if (isIntegral!T)
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero ||
			isOne) { return true; } // default-constructed `this`
		static	  if (is(T == ulong))  { return __gmpz_fits_ulong_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else static if (is(T ==  long))  { return __gmpz_fits_slong_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else static if (is(T ==  uint))  { return __gmpz_fits_uint_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else static if (is(T ==   int))  { return __gmpz_fits_sint_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else static if (is(T == ushort)) { return __gmpz_fits_ushort_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else static if (is(T ==  short)) { return __gmpz_fits_sshort_p(_ptr) != 0; }
		else { static assert(false, "Unsupported type " ~ T.stringof); }
	}

	/** Get population count of `this`.

		If
		- `this` >= 0, number of 1 bits in the binary representation
		- otherwise, ???
	*/
	@property mp_bitcnt_t populationCount() const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (isZero) { return 0; } // default-constructed `this`
		if (isOne) { return 1; } // default-constructed `this`
		return __gmpz_popcount(this._ptr); // TODO: use core.bitop `popcnt` inline here instead?
	}
	alias countOnes = populationCount;

	/// Set bit at 0-offset index `bitIndex` (to one).
	void setBit(mp_bitcnt_t bitIndex) @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_setbit(_ptr, bitIndex);
	}

	/// Clear bit at 0-offset index `bitIndex` (to zero).
	void clearBit(mp_bitcnt_t bitIndex) @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_clrbit(_ptr, bitIndex);
	}

	/// Complement bit at 0-offset index `bitIndex` (to zero).
	void complementBit(mp_bitcnt_t bitIndex) @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		static if (cow) { selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_combit(_ptr, bitIndex);
	}

	/// Test/Get bit at 0-offset index `bitIndex`.
	bool testBit(mp_bitcnt_t bitIndex) const @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return __gmpz_tstbit(_ptr, bitIndex) != 0;
	}
	alias getBit = testBit;

	/** Check if `this` is default-constructed (in constrast to having been
		initialized via `__gmpz_...`-operations).

		Used to specially prepare avoid some `__gmpz_`-functions that cannot
		handle the case when the membere `_mp_alloc` is zero and, in turn,
		`_mp_d` is `null`.
	 */
	@property bool isDefaultConstructed() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _z._mp_alloc == 0; // fast, actually enough to just test this
	}

	/// Check if `this` is zero (either via default-construction or `__gmpz_...`-operations).
	@property bool isZero() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _z._mp_size == 0; // fast
	}

	/// Check if `this` is one.
	@property bool isOne() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		/* NOTE: cannot use _z._mp_d !is null && _z._mp_d[0] == 1 because that’s
		   true for -1 because sign is stored in `_z._mp_size`
		*/
		return _z._mp_size == 1 && _z._mp_d[0] == 1; // fast
	}

	/// Check if `this` is odd.
	@property bool isOdd() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return ((_z._mp_alloc != 0) && // this is needed for default (zero) initialized `__mpz_structs`
				((_z._mp_size != 0) & cast(int)(_z._mp_d[0]))); // fast C macro `mpz_odd_p` in gmp.h
	}

	/// Check if `this` is odd.
	@property bool isEven() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return !isOdd;			// fast C macro `mpz_even_p` in gmp.h
	}

	/// Check if `this` is negative.
	@property bool isNegative() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _z._mp_size < 0; // fast
	}

	/// Check if `this` is positive.
	@property bool isPositive() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _z._mp_size >= 0; // fast
	}

	/** Check if `this` is a perfect power, i.e., if there exist integers A and
	 * B, with B>1, such that `this` equals A raised to the power B.
	 */
	@property bool isPerfectPower() const @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return __gmpz_perfect_power_p(_ptr) != 0;
	}

	/** Return non-zero if `this` is a perfect square, i.e., if the square root
	 * of op is an integer. Under this definition both 0 and 1 are considered to
	 * be perfect squares.
	 */
	@property bool isPerfectSquare() const @trusted
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return __gmpz_perfect_square_p(_ptr) != 0;
	}

	/// Returns: `true` iff `this` is exactly divisible by `rhs`.
	@property bool isDivisibleBy()(auto ref scope const _Z rhs) const @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (rhs.isOne) { return true; }
		return __gmpz_divisible_p(_ptr, rhs._ptr) != 0;
	}
	/// ditto
	@property bool isDivisibleBy(Rhs)(auto ref scope const Rhs rhs) const @trusted
	if (isUnsigned!Rhs)
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		if (rhs == 1) { return true; }
		return __gmpz_divisible_ui_p(_ptr, rhs) != 0;
	}

	/** Returns: sign as either

	  - -1 (`this` < 0),
	  -  0 (`this` == 0), or
	  - +1 (`this` > 0).
	 */
	@property int sgn() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _z._mp_size < 0 ? -1 : _z._mp_size > 0; // fast C macro `mpz_sgn` in gmp.h
	}

	/// Number of significant `uint`s used for storing `this`.
	@property size_t uintLength() const
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		assert(false, "TODO: use mpz_size");
	}

	/// Number of significant `ulong`s used for storing `this`.
	@property size_t uintLong() const
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		assert(false, "TODO: use mpz_size");
	}

	/// Get number of limbs in internal representation.
	@property uint limbCount() const @safe
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return _integralAbs(_z._mp_size);
	}

private:

	/** Initialize internal struct. */
	void initialize() @system // cannot be called `init` as that will override builtin type property
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_init(_ptr);
	}

	/** Initialize internal struct if needed. */
	void assertInitialized() @system
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		if (isDefaultConstructed)
			__gmpz_init(_ptr);
	}

	/// Default conversion base.
	enum defaultBase = 10;

	/// Returns: evaluation of `this` expression which in this is a no-op.
	ref inout(_Z) eval() @safe inout scope return
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return this;
	}

	/// Type of limb in internal representation.
	alias Limb = __mp_limb_t;   // GNU MP alias

	/** Returns: limbs. */
	inout(Limb)[] _limbs() inout return @system
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		// import std.math : abs;
		return _z._mp_d[0 .. limbCount];
	}

	/// Returns: pointer to internal C struct.
	inout(__mpz_struct)* _ptr() inout return @system
	{
		pragma(inline, true);
		return &_z;
	}

	static if (cow)
	{
		private __mpz_struct _z; // internal libgmp C struct
		private size_t _refCountCopies; ///< Number of copies.
	}
	else
	{
		private __mpz_struct _z; // internal libgmp C struct
	}

	version(ccc)
	{
		/** Number of calls made to `__gmpz`--functions that construct or changes
			this value. Used to verify correct lowering and evaluation of template
			expressions.

			For instance the `x` in `x = y + z` should be assigned only once inside
			a call to `mpz_add`.
		*/
		@property size_t mutatingCallCount() const @safe { return _ccc; }
		size_t _ccc;  // C mutation call count. number of calls to C GMP function calls that mutate this object
	}

	/// @nogc-variant of `toStringz` with heap allocation of null-terminated C-string `stringz`.
	char* _allocStringzCopyOf(in char[] value) @nogc @trusted
	{
		import core.memory : pureMalloc;
		char* stringz = cast(char*)pureMalloc(value.length + 1); // maximum this many characters
		size_t i = 0;
		foreach (immutable char ch; value[])
		{
			if (ch != '_')
			{
				stringz[i] = ch;
				i += 1;
			}
		}
		stringz[i] = '\0'; // set C null terminator
		return stringz;
	}

	// qualified C memory managment
	static @trusted extern(C) // locally `@trusted`
	{
		pragma(mangle, "free")
		void qualifiedFree(void* ptr);
	}
}

/** Arbitrary precision integer (BigInt) with explicit copying via `.dup`.

	For copyable using copy-on-write automatic reference counting semantics, use
	`CopyableMpZ`.
*/
alias MpZ = _Z!(false);
static assert(MpZ.sizeof == __mpz_struct.sizeof);

/** Arbitrary precision integer (BigInt) with copy-on-write (CoW) automatic
	reference counting (ARC) API-compatible with `std.bigint`.
*/
alias CopyableMpZ = _Z!(true);
static assert(CopyableMpZ.sizeof == __mpz_struct.sizeof + size_t.sizeof);

version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(MpZ));

version(benchmark)
version(gmp_test) @safe unittest
{
	import std.datetime.stopwatch : benchmark;
	bool odd;
	void test()
	{
		odd = (9.Z^^333_333L).isOdd;
	}
	immutable results = benchmark!test(1);
	import std.stdio;
	writeln("Took:", results[0]);
}

pure:

/** Instantiator for `MpZ`. */
_Z!(cow) mpz(bool cow = true, Args...)(Args args) @safe
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return typeof(return)(args);
}

/// Swap contents of `x` with contents of `y`.
void swap(bool cow)(ref _Z!(cow) x, ref _Z!(cow) y) nothrow
{
	pragma(inline, true);
	import std.algorithm.mutation : swap;
	swap(x, y); // x.swap(y);
}

/// Get `x` as a `string` in decimal base.
string toDecimalString(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) nothrow @safe // for `std.bigint.BigInt` compatibility
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return x.toString(10);
}

/// Get `x` as a uppercased `string` in hexadecimal base without any base prefix (0x).
string toHexadecimalString(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) nothrow @safe
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return x.toString(16, true);
}

/// For `std.bigint.BigInt` compatibility.
alias toHex = toHexadecimalString;

/// Get the absolute value of `x` converted to the corresponding unsigned type.
Unsigned!T absUnsign(T, bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) nothrow @safe // for `std.bigint.BigInt` compatibility
if (isIntegral!T)
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return _integralAbs(cast(T)x);
}

/** Get sum of `x` and `y` (`x` + `y`).
 */
_Z!(cow) add(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (!__traits(isRef, x) || // r-value `x`
			   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = null;		// reuse: will point to either `x` or `y`
		static if (!__traits(isRef, x) && // r-value `x`
				   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
		{
			if (x.limbCount > y.limbCount) // larger r-value `x`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			else					// larger r-value `y`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, x)) // r-value `x`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, y)) // r-value `y`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		__gmpz_add(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `x` and `y`, no reuse in output
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_add(z._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return z;
	}
}

///
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow @nogc unittest
{
	const Z x = Z(2)^^100;
	const Z y = 12;
	assert(add(x, Z(12)) ==	   // l-value, r-value
		   add(Z(12), x));		// r-value, l-value
	assert(add(x, y) ==		   // l-value, l-value
		   add(Z(2)^^100, Z(12)));  // r-value, r-value
	assert(add(Z(12), Z(2)^^100) == // r-value, r-value
		   add(Z(2)^^100, Z(12)));  // r-value, r-value
}

/** Get difference of `x` and `y` (`x` - `y`).
 */
_Z!(cow) sub(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (!__traits(isRef, x) || // r-value `x`
			   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = null;		// reuse: will point to either `x` or `y`
		static if (!__traits(isRef, x) && // r-value `x`
				   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
		{
			if (x.limbCount > y.limbCount) // larger r-value `x`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			else					// larger r-value `y`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, x)) // r-value `x`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, y)) // r-value `y`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_sub(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `x` and `y`, no reuse in output
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_sub(z._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return z;
	}
}

///
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow @nogc unittest
{
	Z x = 2.Z^^100;
	Z y = 12;
	assert(sub(x, Z(12)) ==	   // l-value, r-value
		   -sub(Z(12), x));	   // r-value, l-value
	assert(sub(x, y) ==		   // l-value, l-value
		   sub(2.Z^^100, 12.Z));  // r-value, r-value
	assert(sub(12.Z, 2.Z^^100) == // r-value, r-value
		   -sub(2.Z^^100, 12.Z)); // r-value, r-value
}

/** Get product of `x` and `y` (`x` + `y`).
 */
_Z!(cow) mul(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (!__traits(isRef, x) || // r-value `x`
			   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = null;		// reuse: will point to either `x` or `y`
		static if (!__traits(isRef, x) && // r-value `x`
				   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
		{
			if (x.limbCount > y.limbCount) // larger r-value `x`
			{
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			}
			else					// larger r-value `y`
			{
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			}
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, x)) // r-value `x`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, y)) // r-value `y`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_mul(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `x` and `y`, no reuse in output
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_mul(z._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return z;
	}
}

///
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow @nogc unittest
{
	Z x = 2.Z^^100;
	Z y = 12;
	assert(mul(x, Z(12)) ==	   // l-value, r-value
		   mul(Z(12), x));		// r-value, l-value
	assert(mul(x, y) ==		   // l-value, l-value
		   mul(2.Z^^100, 12.Z));  // r-value, r-value
	assert(mul(12.Z, 2.Z^^100) == // r-value, r-value
		   mul(2.Z^^100, 12.Z));  // r-value, r-value
}

/** Get absolute value of `x`.

	Written as a free function instead of `MpZ`-member because `__traits(isRef,
	this)` doesn't currently support member functions.
*/
_Z!(cow) abs(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		__gmpz_abs(y._ptr, x._ptr);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		zp.absolute();
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

/** Get one's complement of `x`.

	Written as a free function instead of `MpZ`-member because `__traits(isRef,
	this)` doesn't currently support member functions.
*/
_Z!(cow) onesComplement(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		__gmpz_com(y._ptr, x._ptr);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		zp.onesComplementSelf();
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}
alias com = onesComplement;

/** Get truncated integer part of the square root of `x`.

	Written as a free function instead of `MpZ`-member because `__traits(isRef,
	this)` doesn't currently support member functions.

	See: https://gmplib.org/manual/Integer-Roots
*/
_Z!(cow) sqrt(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		__gmpz_sqrt(y._ptr, x._ptr);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		zp.sqrtSelf();
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

_Z!(cow) sqrtrem(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, out scope _Z!(cow) rem) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		__gmpz_sqrtrem(y._ptr, rem._ptr, x._ptr);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		rem = zp.sqrtremSelf();
		return move(*zp);
	}
}

/** Get truncated integer part of the `n`:th root of `x`.

	See: https://gmplib.org/manual/Integer-Roots
*/
_Z!(cow) root(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, ulong n, out bool isExact) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		const status = __gmpz_root(y._ptr, x._ptr, n);
		isExact = status != 0;
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		isExact = zp.rootSelf(n);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

_Z!(cow) rootrem(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, ulong n, out scope _Z!(cow) rem) @trusted nothrow @nogc
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		__gmpz_rootrem(y._ptr, rem._ptr, x._ptr, n);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		rem = zp.rootremSelf(n);
		return move(*zp);
	}
}

/// Comparison of the absolute values of `x` and `y`.
int cmpabs(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return __gmpz_cmpabs(x._ptr, y._ptr);
}
/// ditto
int cmpabs(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, double y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return __gmpz_cmpabs_d(x._ptr, y);
}
/// ditto
int cmpabs(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, ulong y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	return __gmpz_cmpabs_ui(x._ptr, y);
}

/** Get next prime greater than `x`.

	Written as a free function instead of `MpZ`-member because `__traits(isRef,
	this)` doesn't currently support member functions.
*/
_Z!(cow) nextPrime(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) y = null; // must use temporary
		static if (cow) { y.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_nextprime(y._ptr, x._ptr);
		return y;
	}
	else						// r-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_nextprime(zp._ptr, x._ptr);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

/// Get greatest common divisor (gcd) of `x` and `y`.
_Z!(cow) gcd(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (!__traits(isRef, x) || // r-value `x`
			   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = null;		// reuse: will point to either `x` or `y`
		static if (!__traits(isRef, x) && // r-value `x`
				   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
		{
			if (x.limbCount > y.limbCount) // larger r-value `x`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			else					// larger r-value `y`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, x)) // r-value `x`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, y)) // r-value `y`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_gcd(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);

		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `x` and `y`, no reuse in output
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_gcd(z._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return z;
	}
}
/// ditto
_Z!(cow) gcd(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, in ulong y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		const z_ui = __gmpz_gcd_ui(z._ptr, x._ptr, y);
		if (z_ui)
			assert(z == z_ui);
		return z;
	}
	else
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		const z_ui = __gmpz_gcd_ui(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y);
		if (z_ui)
			assert(*zp == z_ui);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

/// Get least common multiple (lcm) of `x` and `y`.
_Z!(cow) lcm(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (!__traits(isRef, x) || // r-value `x`
			   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = null;		// reuse: will point to either `x` or `y`
		static if (!__traits(isRef, x) && // r-value `x`
				   !__traits(isRef, y))   // r-value `y`
		{
			if (x.limbCount > y.limbCount) // larger r-value `x`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
			else					// larger r-value `y`
				zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, x)) // r-value `x`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else static if (!__traits(isRef, y)) // r-value `y`
		{
			zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&y)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		}
		else
			static assert(0);
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_lcm(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);

		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `x` and `y`, no reuse in output
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_lcm(z._ptr, x._ptr, y._ptr);
		return z;
	}
}
/// ditto
_Z!(cow) lcm(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) x, ulong y) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	static if (__traits(isRef, x)) // l-value `x`
	{
		typeof(return) z = null;
		__gmpz_lcm_ui(z._ptr, x._ptr, y);
		return z;
	}
	else
	{
		typeof(return)* zp = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&x)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { zp.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		__gmpz_lcm_ui(zp._ptr, x._ptr, y);
		return move(*zp);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
}

/** Get `base` ^^ `exp` (modulo `mod`).

	Parameter `exp` must be positive.
*/
_Z!(cow) powm(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) base, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) exp, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) mod) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	assert(mod != 0, "Zero modulus");
	typeof(return) y = 0; // result, TODO: reuse `exp` or `mod` if any is an r-value
	assert(exp >= 0, "Negative exponent");
	static if (cow) { y.selfdupIfAliased(); }
	__gmpz_powm(y._ptr, base._ptr, exp._ptr, mod._ptr);
	return y;
}
/// ditto
_Z!(cow) powm(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) base, ulong exp, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) mod) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	assert(mod != 0, "Zero modulus");
	typeof(return) y = 0;	   // result, TODO: reuse `exp` or `mod` if any is an r-value
	static if (cow) { y.selfdupIfAliased(); }
	__gmpz_powm_ui(y._ptr, base._ptr, exp, mod._ptr);
	return y;
}

/// For `std.bigint.BigInt` compatibility.
alias powmod = powm;

/** Get `base` ^^ `-1` (modulo `mod`).

	Parameter `mod` must be positive.
*/
_Z!(cow) invert(bool cow)(auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) base, auto ref scope const _Z!(cow) mod) nothrow @nogc @trusted
{
	version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
	assert(base != 0, "Zero base");
	assert(mod != 0, "Zero modulus");
	static if (!__traits(isRef, base)) // r-value `base`
	{
		typeof(return)* mut_base = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&base)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { mut_base.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		const success = __gmpz_invert(mut_base._ptr, base._ptr, mod._ptr);
		assert(success >= 0, "Cannot invert");
		return move(*mut_base);	// TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else static if (!__traits(isRef, mod)) // r-value `mod`
	{
		typeof(return)* mut_mod = (cast(typeof(return)*)(&mod)); // @trusted because `MpZ` has no aliased indirections
		static if (cow) { mut_mod.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		const success = __gmpz_invert(mut_mod._ptr, base._ptr, mod._ptr);
		assert(success >= 0, "Cannot invert");
		return move(*mut_mod);  // TODO: shouldn't have to call `move` here
	}
	else						// l-value `base` and l-value `mod`
	{
		typeof(return) y = 0; // result, TODO: reuse `exp` or `mod` if any is an r-value
		static if (cow) { y.selfdupIfAliased(); }
		const success = __gmpz_invert(y._ptr, base._ptr, mod._ptr);
		assert(success >= 0, "Cannot invert");
		return y;
	}
}

/// default construction
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow @nogc unittest
{
	Z x = null;
	Z y = null;
	assert(x == y);
	assert(x is y);			 // TODO: is this correct behaviour?
	x = y;
	y = x;

	const Z z = 42;
	x = z;

	assert(Z.init.dup == Z.init);
	assert(Z.init.dup == Z.init.dup);

	assert(Z.init.dup !is Z.init);
	assert(Z.init.dup !is Z.init.dup);

	Z w = null;
	w = 42;
}

/// @nogc to ASCII generation
version(gmp_test) @trusted nothrow unittest
{
	import core.memory : pureFree;
	const Z w = null;
	auto chars = w.toChars;
	scope(exit) pureFree(chars.ptr);
	assert(chars == `0`);
}

/// operate on default-constructed instances
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow unittest
{
	Z w;

	// should be zeroed
	assert(w._z._mp_alloc == 0);
	assert(w._z._mp_size == 0);
	assert(w._z._mp_d is null);

	assert(w == 0);
	assert(w == 0L);
	assert(w == 0UL);
	assert(w == 0.0f);
	assert(w == 0.0);

	assert(w.toString == `0`);
	assert(w.toHash == 0);
	assert(w.sizeInBase(10) == 1);
	assert(w.countOnes == 0);
	assert(w.isZero);
	assert(-w == w);
	assert(abs(w) == w);

	assert(w.fitsIn!ulong);
	assert(w.fitsIn!long);
	assert(w.fitsIn!uint);
	assert(w.fitsIn!int);
	assert(w.fitsIn!ushort);
	assert(w.fitsIn!short);

	assert(!w.isOdd);
	assert(w.isEven);
	assert(!w.isNegative);
	assert(w.isPositive);
	assert(w.sgn == 0);

	w.negate();
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged
	w.negate();
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged

	w = -w;
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged

	w = +w;
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged

	w.absolute();
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged

	w.onesComplementSelf();
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged
	w.onesComplementSelf();
	assert(w is Z.init);		// should be unchanged

	static void testSqrt(ulong p, ulong q) @safe pure nothrow @nogc {
		const x = p.Z;
		assert(sqrt(x)== q);	// l-value first-parameter
		assert(sqrt(p.Z) == q);	// r-value first-parameter
	}
	testSqrt(1, 1);
	testSqrt(2, 1);
	testSqrt(3, 1);
	testSqrt(4, 2);
	testSqrt(5, 2);
	testSqrt(6, 2);
	testSqrt(7, 2);
	testSqrt(8, 2);
	testSqrt(9, 3);
	testSqrt(16, 4);

	{ bool isExact; assert(root(16.Z, 2, isExact) == 4 && isExact); }
	{ bool isExact; assert(root(17.Z, 2, isExact) == 4 && !isExact); }
	{ bool isExact; assert(root(27.Z, 3, isExact) == 3 && isExact); }
	{ bool isExact; assert(root(28.Z, 3, isExact) == 3 && !isExact); }

	foreach (const ui; 16 .. 20)
	{
		{
			Z u = ui;
			Z rem;
			const r = rootrem(u, 2, rem); // l-value first-parameter
			assert(r == 4);
			assert(rem == ui - 16);
		}
		{
			Z rem;
			const r = rootrem(ui.Z, 2, rem); // r-value first-parameter
			assert(r == 4);
			assert(rem == ui - 16);
		}
	}

	foreach (const ui; 16 .. 20)
	{
		{
			Z u = ui;
			Z rem;
			const r = sqrtrem(u, rem); // l-value first-parameter
			assert(r == 4);
			assert(rem == ui - 16);
		}
		{
			Z rem;
			const r = sqrtrem(ui.Z, rem); // r-value first-parameter
			assert(r == 4);
			assert(rem == ui - 16);
		}
	}

	assert(w^^10 == 0);
	assert(w^^0 == 1);		  // TODO: correct?

	// change it and check its contents
	w = 42;
	assert(w.toString == `42`);
	assert(w.toHash != 0);	  // should at least be non-zero

	{
		Z p;
		p.setBit(5);
		assert(p == 32);
	}
	{
		Z p;
		p.clearBit(5);
		assert(p == 0);
	}
	{
		Z p;
		p.complementBit(5);
		assert(p == 32);
	}
	{
		Z p;
		assert(p.testBit(5) == 0);
	}
	{
		Z p;
		++p;
		assert(p == 1);
	}
	{
		Z p;
		--p;
		assert(p == -1);
	}

	assert(Z.init + Z.init == Z.init);
	assert(Z.init - Z.init == Z.init);
	assert(Z.init * Z.init == Z.init);

	assert(Z.init + 1 == 1);
	assert(Z.init - 1 == -1);

	assert(Z.init * 1 == 0);
	assert(Z.init / 1 == 0);
	assert(Z.init ^^ 1 == Z.init);
	assert(Z.init ^^ 0 == 1);

	assert(1 + Z.init == 1);
	assert(1 - Z.init == 1);
	assert(1 * Z.init == 0);
}

/// null construction
version(gmp_test) @safe nothrow @nogc unittest
{
	const Z x = null;
	const Z y = null;
	assert(x == y);
	assert(x is y);	// TODO: this behaviour recently changed. is this correct?
}

///
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	const x = 42.Z;
	assert(x.unaryMinus() == -42);   // l-value `this`
	assert(42.Z.unaryMinus() == -42); // r-value `this`
}

/// convert to string
version(gmp_test) @safe unittest
{
	assert(mpz(	42).toString ==   `42`);
	assert(mpz(   -42).toString ==  `-42`);
	assert(mpz(`-101`).toString == `-101`);

	assert(mpz(-42).toDecimalString == `-42`);
	assert(mpz( 42).toDecimalString ==  `42`);

	assert(mpz( 0).toHex == `0`);
	assert(mpz( 1).toHex == `1`);
	assert(mpz( 9).toHex == `9`);
	assert(mpz(10).toHex == `A`);
	assert(mpz(14).toHex == `E`);
	assert(mpz(15).toHex == `F`);
	assert(mpz(16).toHex == `10`);

	assert(mpz(-42).absUnsign!ulong == 42);
	assert(mpz( 42).absUnsign!ulong == 42);
}

///
version(gmp_test) @nogc unittest
{
	ubyte[int.sizeof] storage;
	const ubyte[1] expected = [2];
	assert(storage[0] == 0);
	const storage2 =  2.Z.serialize(storage, WordOrder.mostSignificantWordFirst, 1, WordEndianess.littleEndian, 0);
	assert(storage2.ptr == storage.ptr);
	assert(storage2 == expected);
}

version(gmp_test) unittest
{
	const ubyte[int.sizeof] storage;
	const ubyte[1] expected = [2];
	const ubyte[] storage2 = 2.Z.serialize!(ubyte)(WordOrder.mostSignificantWordFirst, WordEndianess.littleEndian, 0);
	assert(storage2 == expected);
}

///
version(gmp_test) unittest
{
	auto prime = 33_391.Z;
	for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i)
	{
		prime = nextPrime(prime);
		for (auto order = WordOrder.min; order < WordOrder.max; ++order)
		{
			for (auto endianess = WordEndianess.min; endianess < WordEndianess.max; ++endianess)
			{
				ubyte[] data = prime.serialize!(ubyte)(order, endianess, 0);
				const samePrime = Z(data, order, 1, endianess, 0);
				assert(prime == samePrime);
			}
		}
	}
}

/// opBinary with r-value right-hand-side
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	const Z a = 42;
	{
		const Z b = a + 1.Z;	// r-value `rhs`
		assert(b == 43);
	}

	{
		const Z b = a - 1.Z;	// r-value `rhs`
		assert(b == 41);
	}

	{
		const Z b = a * 2.Z;	// r-value `rhs`
		assert(b == 84);
	}

	{
		const Z b = a / 2.Z;	// r-value `rhs`
		assert(b == 21);
	}

	{
		const Z b = a % 10.Z;	// r-value `rhs`
		assert(b == 2);
	}
}

///
version(gmp_test) @safe unittest
{
	const _ = (cast(uint)42).Z;
	const a = 42.Z;
	const b = 43UL.Z;
	const c = 43.0.Z;
	const z = 0.Z;

	// `opOpAssign` with `Unsigned`
	auto w = 42.Z;
	assert(w == 42);

	w += 100UL;
	assert(w == 142);

	w -= 100.Z;
	assert(w == 42);

	w += 100UL;
	assert(w == 142);

	w -= 100UL;
	assert(w == 42);

	w *= 100UL;
	assert(w == 4200);

	w /= 100UL;
	assert(w == 42);

	w %= 10UL;
	assert(w == 2);

	w ^^= 6UL;
	assert(w == 64);

	w = 42;
	assert(w == 42);

	w += 100;
	assert(w == 142);

	w -= 100;
	assert(w == 42);

	w *= 100;
	assert(w == 4200);

	w /= 100;
	assert(w == 42);

	w *= 100;
	assert(w == 4200);

	w /= -100;
	assert(w == -42);

	w *= -1;
	assert(w == 42);

	w %= 10;
	assert(w == 2);

	w = 2;
	w ^^= 6;
	assert(w == 64);

	w = 32.0;
	assert(w == 32);

	w = 42UL;
	assert(w == 42);

	w /= 2.Z;
	assert(w == 21);

	w /= -2.Z;
	assert(w == -10);

	w *= -2.Z;
	assert(w == 20);

	w %= 3.Z;
	assert(w == 2);

	w *= -1.Z;
	assert(w == -2);

	w /= -1.Z;
	assert(w == 2);

	// equality
	assert(z == 0);
	assert(z == cast(uint)0);
	assert(z == 0L);
	assert(z == 0UL);
	assert(z == 0.0f);
	assert(z == 0.0);

	// eval cast

	assert(a);
	assert(cast(ulong)a == a);
	assert(cast(ulong)a == 42);
	assert(cast(long)a == a);
	assert(cast(long)a == 42);
	assert(cast(double)a == 42.0);

	// binary

	assert(`0b11`.Z == 3);
	assert(`0B11`.Z == 3);
	assert(Z.fromBinaryString(`11`) == 3);
	assert(Z.fromBinaryString(`0b11`) == 3);
	assert(Z.fromBinaryString(`0B11`) == 3);

	// octal

	assert(`07`.Z == 7);
	assert(`010`.Z == 8);

	// hexadecimal

	assert(`0x10`.Z == 16);
	assert(`0X10`.Z == 16);
	assert(Z(`10`, 16) == 16);
	assert(Z.fromHexString(`10`) == 16);
	assert(Z.fromHexString(`0x10`) == 16);
	assert(Z.fromHexString(`0X10`) == 16);

	// decimal

	assert(`101`.Z == 101);
	assert(`101`.Z == 101);

	const ic = 101UL.Z;

	assert(a == a.dup);
	assert(ic == ic.dup);

	// equality

	assert(a == a);
	assert(a == 42.Z);
	assert(a == 42.0);
	assert(a == 42);
	assert(a == cast(uint)42);
	assert(a == 42UL);
	assert(_ == 42);
	assert(c == 43.0);

	// non-equality

	assert(a != b);

	// less than

	assert(a < b);
	assert(a < 43.Z);
	assert(a < 43);
	assert(a < cast(uint)43);
	assert(a < 43UL);
	assert(a < 43.0);

	assert(-1.Z < 0.Z);
	assert(-1.Z < 0L);
	assert(-1.Z < 0UL);
	assert(-1.Z < 0.0);

	// greater than

	assert(b > a);
	assert(b > 42.Z);
	assert(b > 42);
	assert(b > cast(uint)42);
	assert(b > 42UL);
	assert(b > 42.0);

	assert(+1.Z > 0.Z);
	assert(+1.Z > 0L);
	assert(+1.Z > 0UL);
	assert(+1.Z > 0.0);

	// absolute value

	assert(abs(a) == a);		// free function
	assert(a.abs == a);		 // UFCS
	assert(abs(-42.Z) == 42);
	assert(abs(-a) == a);

	// absolute value comparison

	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z,  44.Z) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, -44.Z) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs(-44.Z, -43.Z) == +1);
	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, -43.Z) ==  0);

	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z,  44.0) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, -44.0) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs(-44.Z, -43.0) == +1);
	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, -43.0) ==  0);

	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, 44) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs( 43.Z, 44) == -1);
	assert(cmpabs(-44.Z, 43) == +1);
	assert(cmpabs( 44.Z, 43) == +1);
	assert(cmpabs(-43.Z, 43) ==  0);

	Z _43 = 43;
	Z _4 = 4;
	Z _24 = 24;

	// next prime
	assert(nextPrime(_4) == 5);
	assert(nextPrime(24.Z) == 29);

	assert(nextPrime(_24) == 29);
	assert(nextPrime(24.Z) == 29);
	assert(24.Z.nextPrime() == 29);

	assert(nextPrime(_43) == 47);
	assert(nextPrime(43.Z) == 47);
	assert(43.Z.nextPrime() == 47);

	// greatest common divisor

	assert(gcd(43.Z,  44.Z) == 1);
	assert(gcd(4.Z, 24.Z) == 4);
	assert(gcd(6.Z, 24.Z) == 6);
	assert(gcd(10.Z, 100.Z) == 10);

	assert(gcd(43.Z,  44) == 1);
	assert(gcd(4.Z, 24) == 4);
	assert(gcd(6.Z, 24) == 6);
	assert(gcd(10.Z, 100) == 10);

	assert(gcd(_43,  44) == 1);
	assert(gcd(_4, 24) == 4);
	assert(gcd(_4, _24) == 4);
	assert(gcd(_4, 24.Z) == 4);

	// least common multiple

	assert(lcm(43.Z,  44.Z) == 1892);
	assert(lcm(4.Z, 24.Z) == 24);
	assert(lcm(6.Z, 24.Z) == 24);
	assert(lcm(10.Z, 100.Z) == 100);

	assert(lcm(43.Z,  44) == 1892);
	assert(lcm(4.Z, 24) == 24);
	assert(lcm(6.Z, 24) == 24);
	assert(lcm(10.Z, 100) == 100);

	assert(lcm(_43,  44) == 1892);
	assert(lcm(_4, 24) == 24);
	assert(lcm(_4, _24) == 24);
	assert(lcm(_4, 24.Z) == 24);

	// negated value

	assert(-a == -42);
	assert(-(-a) == a);

	auto n = 42.Z;
	n.negate();
	assert(n == -42);
	n.negate();
	assert(n == 42);
	n.negate();
	assert(n == -42);
	n.absolute();
	assert(n == 42);
	n.absolute();
	assert(n == 42);

	n.onesComplementSelf();
	assert(n == -43);
	assert(onesComplement(n) == 42);
	assert(onesComplement(-43.Z) == 42);
	assert(com(n) == 42);
	assert(com(-43.Z) == 42);

	/*TODO: figure out why this call doesn’t trigger a warn-unused warning when
	 * the functions below returning `S` above does */
	onesComplement(42.Z);
	static if (false) {
		struct S(T) {
			T x;
			T* xp;						// this prevents diagnostics
		}
		static S!int f()() @safe pure nothrow @nogc { return typeof(return).init; }
		static S!int g()(scope S!int x) @safe pure nothrow @nogc { return x; }
		static const(S!int) h1()(scope const(S!int) x) @safe pure nothrow @nogc { return x; }
		static S!int h2()(scope const(S!int) _) @safe pure nothrow @nogc { return typeof(return).init; }
		g(S!int(32));
		f();
		h1(S!int(32));
		h2(S!int(32));
	}

	// addition

	assert(a + b == b + a);	 // commutative
	assert(a + 43.Z == b + a);
	assert(a - 43.Z == -(43.Z - a));
	assert(a + 0 == a);
	assert(a + 1 != a);
	assert(0 + a == a);
	assert(1 + a != a);
	assert(a + 0UL == a);
	assert(a + 1UL != a);
	assert(a + b == 42 + 43);
	assert(1 + a == 43);
	assert(a + (-1) == 41);
	assert(1UL + a == 43);
	assert(a + 1 == 1 + a);	   // commutative
	assert(a + (-1) == (-1) + a); // commutative
	assert(1UL + a == a + 1UL);   // commutative

	// subtraction

	assert(a - 2 == 40);
	assert(2 - a == -40);
	assert(-2 - a == -44);
	assert(a - 2 == -(2 - a));	 // commutative
	assert(a - (-2) == 44);
	assert(44UL - 42.Z == 2);

	// multiplication

	assert(a * 1UL == a);
	assert(a * 1 == a);
	assert(1 * a == a);
	assert(1UL * a == a);
	assert((-1) * a == -a);
	assert(a * 2 != a);
	assert(a * -2 == -(2*a));
	assert(a * b == b * a);
	assert(a * b == 42UL * 43UL);

	// division

	assert(27.Z / 3.Z == 9);
	assert(27.Z /   3  == 9);

	assert(27.Z / 10.Z  == 2);
	assert(27.Z /   10   == 2);
	assert(27.Z /   10UL == 2);

	assert(27.Z % 10UL == 7);

	assert(27.Z / -3   == -9);
	assert(27.Z /  3UL ==  9);

	assert(27.Z / -10   == -2);

	assert(28   /  3.Z ==  9);
	assert(28UL /  3.Z ==  9);

	assert(28   / -3.Z == -9);
	assert(28UL / -3.Z == -9);

	// modulo/remainder

	assert(27.Z % 3.Z == 0);
	assert(27.Z % 10.Z == 7);

	assert(27.Z % 3 == 0);
	assert(-27.Z % 3 == 0);

	assert(27.Z % 10 == 7);
	assert(27.Z % 10 == 7);

	assert(28   % 3.Z == 1);
	assert(28UL % 3.Z == 1);

	assert( 28.Z  % -3 == -1); // negative divisor gives negative remainder according to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remainder
	assert(-28.Z  %  3 == 1);  // dividend sign doesn't affect remainder

	assert( 28.Z  % -3.Z == -1);
	assert(-28.Z  %  3.Z == 2);
	assert( 28  % -3.Z == 1);
	assert(-28  %  3.Z == -1);

	// modulo/remainder

	const one = 1.Z;
	const two = 2.Z;
	const three = 3.Z;
	const four = 4.Z;
	const five = 5.Z;
	const six = 6.Z;
	assert(six % one == 0);
	assert(six % two == 0);
	assert(six % three == 0);
	assert(six % four == 2);
	assert(six % five == 1);
	assert(six % six == 0);

	// subtraction

	assert(six - one == 5);
	assert(six - 1UL == 5);
	assert(six - 1 == 5);
	assert(1 - six == -5);
	assert(1L - six == -5);
	assert(1UL - six == -5);

	// exponentiation
	assert(0.Z^^0 == 1);
	assert(3.Z^^3 == 27);
	assert(3.Z^^3L == 27);
	assert(2.Z^^8 == 256);
	assert(2.Z^^8L == 256);
	assert(2.Z^^8UL == 256);

	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 8UL) == 256);
	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 8) == 256);
	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 8) == 256);
	assert(Z.pow(2, 8) == 256);
	assert(Z.pow(-2, 8) == 256);
	assert(Z.pow(-2, 7) == -128);

	// disallow power exponent to be an `MpZ`
	assert(!__traits(compiles, 2^^8.Z == 256));
	assert(!__traits(compiles, 2L^^8.Z == 256));
	assert(!__traits(compiles, 2UL^^8.Z == 256));

	// exponentiation plus modulus

	assert(2.Z.powm(8.Z, 8.Z) == 0.Z);
	assert(2.Z.powm(3.Z, 16.Z) == 8.Z);
	assert(3.Z.powm(3.Z, 16.Z) == 11.Z);

	assert(2.Z.powm(8, 8.Z) == 0.Z);
	assert(2.Z.powm(3, 16.Z) == 8.Z);
	assert(3.Z.powm(3, 16.Z) == 11.Z);

	// modular multiplicative inverse
	assert(3.Z.invert(26.Z) == 9.Z); // r-value `base`
	assert(3.Z.invert(-26.Z) == 9.Z); // r-value `base`
	{
		auto base = 3.Z;
		assert(base.invert(26.Z) == 9.Z); // l-value `base` and r-value `mod`
	}
	{
		auto base = 3.Z;
		auto mod = 26.Z;
		assert(base.invert(mod) == 9.Z); // l-value `base` and l-value `mod
	}

	// bitwise and, or and xor

	{
		foreach (immutable i; 0 .. 10)
		{
			foreach (immutable j; 0 .. 10)
			{
				assert((i.Z & j.Z) == (i & j));
				assert((i.Z | j.Z) == (i | j));
				assert((i.Z ^ j.Z) == (i ^ j));

				Z x = null;

				x = i.Z;
				x &= j.Z;
				assert(x == (i & j));

				x = i.Z;
				x |= j.Z;
				assert(x == (i | j));

				x = i.Z;
				x ^= j.Z;
				assert(x == (i ^ j));
			}
		}
	}

	// swap

	auto x = 42.Z;
	auto y = 43.Z;

	assert(x == 42);
	assert(y == 43);

	x.swap(y);

	assert(y == 42);
	assert(x == 43);

	swap(x, y);

	assert(x == 42);
	assert(y == 43);

	assert(null.Z.fromString("42") == 42.Z);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("42") < 43.Z);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("42") > 41.Z);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("42") == 42);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("11", 2) == 3);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("7", 8) == 7);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("7") == 7);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("e", 16) == 14);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("f", 16) == 15);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("0xe") == 14);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("0xf") == 15);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("10", 16) == 16);
	assert(null.Z.fromString("10", 32) == 32);

	// odd and even

	assert(0.Z.isEven);
	assert(1.Z.isOdd);
	assert(2.Z.isEven);
	assert(3.Z.isOdd);

	assert((-1).Z.isOdd);
	assert((-2).Z.isEven);
	assert((-3).Z.isOdd);

	assert("300000000000000000000000000000000000000".Z.isEven);
	assert("300000000000000000000000000000000000001".Z.isOdd);
	assert("300000000000000000000000000000000000002".Z.isEven);
	assert("300000000000000000000000000000000000003".Z.isOdd);

	// negative and positive

	assert(0.Z.isPositive);
	assert(1.Z.isPositive);
	assert(2.Z.isPositive);
	assert(3.Z.isPositive);
	// TODO: assert(!(-1.Z.isPositive));
	// TODO: assert(!(-2.Z.isPositive));
	// TODO: assert(!(-3.Z.isPositive));
	// TODO: assert(-1.Z.isNegative);
	// TODO: assert(-2.Z.isNegative);
	// TODO: assert(-3.Z.isNegative);
	// TODO: assert(!(1.Z.isNegative));
	// TODO: assert(!(2.Z.isNegative));
	// TODO: assert(!(3.Z.isNegative));

	foreach (const p; 1 .. 10)
	{
		assert((p^^2).Z.isPerfectSquare);
		assert(!(p^^2 + 1).Z.isPerfectSquare);
		foreach (const q; 2 .. 5)
			assert((p^^q).Z.isPerfectPower);
	}

	foreach (const d; 1UL .. 10UL)
	{
		assert( d.Z.isDivisibleBy(d));
		assert( d.Z.isDivisibleBy(d.Z));
		assert(!d.Z.isDivisibleBy(d + 1));
		assert(!d.Z.isDivisibleBy((d + 1).Z));
	}
	assert( 1.Z.isDivisibleBy(1.Z));
	assert( 2.Z.isDivisibleBy(1.Z));
	assert(!1.Z.isDivisibleBy(2.Z));
	assert(!3.Z.isDivisibleBy(2.Z));
	assert( 100.Z.isDivisibleBy(10.Z));
	assert( 100.Z.isDivisibleBy(10UL));

	assert((-1).Z.isNegative);
	assert((-2).Z.isNegative);
	assert((-3).Z.isNegative);

	// sign function (sgn)

	assert(long.min.Z.sgn == -1);
	assert(int.min.Z.sgn  == -1);
	assert(-2.Z.sgn == -1);
	assert(-1.Z.sgn == -1);
	assert( 0.Z.sgn ==  0);
	assert( 1.Z.sgn ==  1);
	assert( 2.Z.sgn ==  1);
	assert(int.max.Z.sgn  == 1);
	assert(long.max.Z.sgn == 1);

	assert(!long.min.Z.isZero);
	assert(!int.min.Z.isZero);
	assert(!(-2).Z.isZero);
	assert(!(-1).Z.isZero);
	assert( 0.Z.isZero);
	assert(! 1.Z.isZero);
	assert(! 2.Z.isZero);
	assert(!int.max.Z.isZero);
	assert(!long.max.Z.isZero);

	assert(!long.min.Z.isOne);
	assert(!int.min.Z.isOne);
	assert(!(-2).Z.isOne);
	assert(!(-1).Z.isOne);
	assert(!0.Z.isOne);
	assert( 1.Z.isOne);
	assert(! 2.Z.isOne);
	assert(!int.max.Z.isOne);
	assert(!long.max.Z.isOne);

	assert(0.Z.populationCount == 0);
	assert(1.Z.populationCount == 1);
	assert(2.Z.populationCount == 1);
	assert(3.Z.populationCount == 2);
	assert(4.Z.populationCount == 1);
	assert(5.Z.populationCount == 2);
	assert(6.Z.populationCount == 2);
	assert(7.Z.populationCount == 3);

	// TODO
	// {
	//	 Z g = null;
	//	 assert(!b.testBit(0));
	//	 g.setBit(0);
	//	 assert(b.testBit(0));
	//	 g.clearBit(0);
	//	 assert(!b.testBit(0));
	// }

	// fits in type

	foreach (Integral; AliasSeq!(short, int, long,
								 ushort, uint, ulong))
	{
		assert(Integral.min.Z.fitsIn!Integral);
		assert(Integral.max.Z.fitsIn!Integral);
	}

	// TODO
	// assert(short.min.Z.fitsIn!short);
	// assert(short.max.Z.fitsIn!short);
	// assert(ushort.min.Z.fitsIn!ushort);
	// assert(ushort.max.Z.fitsIn!ushort);

	// limb count

	assert(0.Z.limbCount == 0);
	assert(1.Z.limbCount == 1);
	assert(2.Z.limbCount == 1);

	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 32UL).limbCount == 1);

	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 63UL).limbCount == 1);
	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 63UL + 1).limbCount == 2);

	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 127UL).limbCount == 2);
	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 127UL + 1).limbCount == 3);

	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 255UL).limbCount == 4);
	assert(Z.pow(2UL, 255UL + 1).limbCount == 5);
}

/// generators
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(Z.mersennePrime(15) == 2^^15 - 1);
	assert(Z.mersennePrime(15UL) == 2^^15 - 1);
}

/// left shift
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(1.Z << 1.Z == 2^^1);
	assert(1.Z << 2.Z == 2^^2);
	assert(1.Z << 32.Z == 2UL^^32);
	assert(1.Z << 63.Z == 2UL^^63);
	assert(16.Z << -3.Z == 2); // `16 << -3` becomes `16 >> 3`

	assert(1.Z << 1U == 2^^1);
	assert(1.Z << 2U == 2^^2);
	assert(1.Z << 32U == 2UL^^32);
	assert(1.Z << 63U == 2UL^^63);
	assert(16.Z << -3 == 2); // `16 << -3` becomes `16 >> 3`

	Z a;
	a = 1;
	a <<= 1u;
	assert(a == 2^^1);
	a = 1;
	a <<= 2u;
	assert(a == 2^^2);
	a = 1;
	a <<= 32u;
	assert(a == 2UL^^32);
	a = 1;
	a <<= 63u;
	assert(a == 2UL^^63);
	a = 16;
	a <<= -3;
	assert(a == 2);

	Z b;
	a = 1;
	b = 1;
	a <<= b;
	assert(a == 2^^1);
	a = 1;
	b = 2;
	a <<= b;
	assert(a == 2^^2);
	a = 1;
	b = 32;
	a <<= b;
	assert(a == 2UL^^32);
	a = 1;
	b = 63;
	a <<= b;
	assert(a == 2UL^^63);
	a = 16;
	b = -3;
	a <<= b;
	assert(a == 2);
}

/// right shift
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(0x4.Z >> 1.Z == 0x2);
	assert(0x4.Z >> 2.Z == 0x1);
	assert(0x4.Z >> 3.Z == 0x0);
	assert(0x123456789ABCDEF.Z >> 4.Z == 0x123456789ABCDEuL);
	assert(0xABCDEF.Z >> 8.Z == 0xABCD);
	assert(0x1234ABCDEF.Z >> 32.Z == 0x12);
	assert(2.Z >> -3.Z == 16); // `2 >> -3` becomes `2 << 3`

	assert(0x4.Z >> 1 == 0x2);
	assert(0x4.Z >> 2 == 0x1);
	assert(0x4.Z >> 3 == 0x0);
	assert(0x123456789ABCDEF.Z >> 4 == 0x123456789ABCDEuL);
	assert(0xABCDEF.Z >> 8 == 0xABCD);
	assert(0x1234ABCDEF.Z >> 32 == 0x12);
	assert(2.Z >> -3 == 16);

	Z a, b;
	a = 4;
	a >>= 1;
	assert(a == 0x2);
	a = 4;
	a >>= 2;
	assert(a == 0x1);
	a = 4;
	a >>= 3;
	assert(a == 0x0);
	a = 0x123456789ABCDEF;
	a >>= 4;
	assert(a == 0x123456789ABCDEuL);
	a = 0xABCDEF;
	a >>= 8;
	assert(a == 0xABCD);
	a = 0x1234ABCDEF;
	a >>= 32;
	assert(a == 0x12);
	a = 2;
	a >>= -3;
	assert(a == 16);

	a = 4;
	b = 1;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0x2);
	a = 4;
	b = 2;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0x1);
	a = 4;
	b = 3;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0x0);
	a = 0x123456789ABCDEF;
	b = 4;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0x123456789ABCDEuL);
	a = 0xABCDEF;
	b = 8;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0xABCD);
	a = 0x1234ABCDEF;
	b = 32;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 0x12);
	a = 2;
	b = -3;
	a >>= b;
	assert(a == 16);

}

/// verify compliance with Phobos' `BigInt`
version(gmp_test) @safe unittest
{
	alias bigInt = mpz;
	alias BigInt = Z;	 // Phobos naming convention

	{
		const BigInt a = "9588669891916142";
		const BigInt b = "7452469135154800";
		const c = a * b;
		assert(c == BigInt("71459266416693160362545788781600"));
		auto d = b * a;
		assert(d == BigInt("71459266416693160362545788781600"));
		assert(d == c);
		d = c * BigInt("794628672112");
		assert(d == BigInt("56783581982794522489042432639320434378739200"));
		auto e = c + d;
		assert(e == BigInt("56783581982865981755459125799682980167520800"));
		const f = d + c;
		assert(f == e);
		auto g = f - c;
		assert(g == d);
		g = f - d;
		assert(g == c);
		e = 12_345_678;
		g = c + e;
		const h = g / b;
		const i = g % b;
		assert(h == a);
		assert(i == e);
		BigInt j = "-0x9A56_57f4_7B83_AB78";
		j ^^= 11UL;
		j ^^= 2L;
		j ^^= 2;
	}

	{
		auto b = BigInt("1_000_000_000");

		b += 12_345;
		assert(b == 1_000_012_345);
		b += -12_345;
		assert(b == 1_000_000_000);

		b -= -12_345;
		assert(b == 1_000_012_345);
		b -= +12_345;
		assert(b == 1_000_000_000);

		b += 12_345;
		assert(b == 1_000_012_345);

		b /= 5UL;
		assert(b == 200_002_469);
	}

	{
		auto x = BigInt("123");
		const y = BigInt("321");
		x += y;
		assert(x == 444);
	}

	{
		const x = BigInt("123");
		const y = BigInt("456");
		const BigInt z = x * y;
		assert(z == 56_088);
	}

	{
		auto x = BigInt("123");
		x *= 300;
		assert(x == 36_900);
	}

	{
		auto x = BigInt("123");
		x *= -1;
		assert(x == -123);
	}

	{
		const x  = BigInt("1_000_000_500");

		immutable ulong ul  = 2_000_000UL;
		immutable uint ui   = 500_000;
		immutable ushort us = 30_000;
		immutable ubyte ub  = 50;

		immutable long  l = 1_000_000L;
		immutable int   i = 500_000;
		immutable short s = 30_000;
		immutable byte b  = 50;

		static assert(is(typeof(x % ul)  == ulong));
		static assert(is(typeof(x % ui)  == uint));
		static assert(is(typeof(x % us)  == ushort));
		static assert(is(typeof(x % ub)  == ubyte));

		static assert(is(typeof(x % l)  == long));
		static assert(is(typeof(x % i)  == int));
		// TODO: static assert(is(typeof(x % s)  == short));
		// TODO: static assert(is(typeof(x % b)  == byte));

		assert(x % ul == 500);
		assert(x % ui == 500);
		assert(x % us  == 10_500);
		assert(x % ub == 0);

		assert(x % l  == 500L);
		assert(x % i  == 500);
		assert(x % s  == 10_500);
		assert(x % b == 0);
	}

	{
		const x = BigInt("100");
		const BigInt y = 123 + x;
		assert(y == BigInt("223"));

		const BigInt z = 123 - x;
		assert(z == BigInt("23"));

		// Dividing a built-in integer type by BigInt always results in
		// something that fits in a built-in type, so the built-in type is
		// returned, not BigInt.
		static assert(is(typeof(1000 / x) == int));
		assert(1000 / x == 10);
	}

	{
		auto x = BigInt("1234");
		assert(+x  == BigInt(" 1234"));
		assert(-x  == BigInt("-1234"));
		++x;
		assert(x == BigInt("1235"));
		--x;
		assert(x == BigInt("1234"));
	}

	{
		const x = BigInt("12345");
		const y = BigInt("12340");
		immutable int z = 12_345;
		immutable int w = 54_321;
		assert(x == x);
		assert(x != y);
		assert(x == y + 5);
		assert(x == z);
		assert(x != w);
	}

	{
		// non-zero values are regarded as `true`
		const x = BigInt("1");
		const y = BigInt("10");
		assert(x);
		assert(y);

		// zero value is regarded as `false`
		const z = BigInt("0");
		assert(!z);
	}

	{
		assert(cast(int)BigInt("0") == 0);
		assert(cast(ubyte)BigInt("0") == 0);

		assert(cast(ubyte)BigInt(255) == 255);
		assert(cast(ushort)BigInt(65_535) == 65_535);
		assert(cast(uint)BigInt(uint.max) == uint.max);
		assert(cast(ulong)BigInt(ulong.max) == ulong.max);

		assert(cast(byte)BigInt(-128) == -128);
		assert(cast(short)BigInt(-32_768) == -32_768);
		assert(cast(int)BigInt(int.min) == int.min);
		assert(cast(long)BigInt(long.min) == long.min);

		assert(cast(byte)BigInt(127) == 127);
		assert(cast(short)BigInt(32_767) == 32_767);
		assert(cast(int)BigInt(int.max) == int.max);
		assert(cast(long)BigInt(long.max) == long.max);

		// TODO:
		// import std.conv : to, ConvOverflowException;
		// import std.exception : assertThrown;
		// assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(BigInt("256").to!ubyte);
		// assertThrown!ConvOverflowException(BigInt("-1").to!ubyte);
	}

	{
		// TODO
		// segfaults because with double free
		// const(BigInt) x = BigInt("123");
		// BigInt y = cast()x;	// cast away const
		// assert(y == x);
	}

	{
		const x = BigInt("100");
		const y = BigInt("10");
		const int z = 50;
		const int w = 200;
		assert(y < x);
		assert(x > z);
		assert(z > y);
		assert(x < w);
	}

	{
		assert(BigInt("12345").toLong() == 12_345);
		assert(BigInt("-123450000000000000000000000000").toLong() == long.min);
		assert(BigInt("12345000000000000000000000000000").toLong() == long.max);
	}

	{
		assert(BigInt("12345").toInt() == 12_345);
		assert(BigInt("-123450000000000000000000000000").toInt() == int.min);
		assert(BigInt("12345000000000000000000000000000").toInt() == int.max);
	}
}

/// Fermats Little Theorem
version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	version (unittestLong)
	{
		/*
		  Fermats little theorem: a ^ p ≡ a (mod p) ∀ prime p check Fermats
		  little theorem for a ≤ 100000 and all mersene primes M(p) : p ≤ 127
		*/
		foreach (immutable ulong i; [2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127])
		{
			foreach (immutable ulong j; 2 .. 100_000)
			{
				const p = Z.mersennePrime(i); // power
				const a = Z(j); // base
				const amp = a % p;
				const b = a.powm(p, p); // result
				assert(b == amp);
			}
		}
	}
}

// Euler's Sum of Powers Conjecture counter example
version(gmp_test) pure @nogc unittest
{
	/*
	  a^5 + b^5 + c^5 + d^5 = e^5 Lander & Parkin, 1966 found the first counter
	  example: 27^5 + 84^5 + 110^5 + 133^5 = 144^5. This test searches for this
	  counter example by brute force for all positive a, b, c, d ≤ 144
	*/

	enum LIMIT = 144 + 1;
	enum POWER = 5;

	version (unittestLong)
	{
		bool found = false;
		Z r1 = 0;
	outermost:
		foreach (immutable ulong a; 1 .. LIMIT)
		{
			foreach (immutable ulong b; a .. LIMIT)
			{
				foreach (immutable ulong c; b .. LIMIT)
				{
					foreach (immutable ulong d; c .. LIMIT)
					{
						r1 = ((Z(a) ^^ POWER) +
							  (Z(b) ^^ POWER) +
							  (Z(c) ^^ POWER) +
							  (Z(d) ^^ POWER));
						Z rem = 0;
						__gmpz_rootrem(r1._ptr, rem._ptr, r1._ptr, POWER); // TODO: replace with call to D wrapper
						if (rem == 0UL)
						{
							debug printf("Counter Example Found: %lu^5 + %lu^5 + %lu^5 + %lu^5 = %lu^5\n",
										 a, b, c, d, cast(ulong)r1);
							found = true;
							break outermost;
						}
					}
				}
			}
		}
		assert(found);
	}
}

/// expression template types

/// `MpZ`-`MpZ` adding expression.
private struct AddExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;				// first term
	_Z!(cow) e2;				// second term
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_add(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(AddExpr!(true)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(AddExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z).eval() == 3 + 4);

	const Z x = AddExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z);
	assert(x == 7);

	Z y = null;
	y = AddExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z);
	assert(y == 7);

}

/// `MpZ`-`MpZ` subtraction expression.
private struct SubExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;					  // first term
	_Z!(cow) e2;					  // second term
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_sub(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(SubExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(SubExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z).eval() == 3 - 4);
	const Z x = SubExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z);
	assert(x == -1);
}

/// `MpZ`-`MpZ` multiplication expression.
private struct MulExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;				// first factor
	_Z!(cow) e2;				// second factor
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_mul(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(MulExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(MulExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z).eval() == 3 * 4);

	const Z x = MulExpr!(false)(3.Z, 4.Z);
	assert(x == 12);
}

/// `MpZ`-`MpZ` division expression.
private struct DivExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;				// divisor
	_Z!(cow) e2;				// dividend
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted	// TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_tdiv_q(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(DivExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(DivExpr!(false)(27.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 27 / 3);
	assert(DivExpr!(false)(28.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 28 / 3);
	assert(DivExpr!(false)(29.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 29 / 3);
	assert(DivExpr!(false)(30.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 30 / 3);

	const Z x = DivExpr!(false)(28.Z, 3.Z);
	assert(x == 9);
}

/// `MpZ`-`MpZ` modulus expression.
private struct ModExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;				// divisor
	_Z!(cow) e2;				// dividend
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_tdiv_r(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(ModExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(ModExpr!(false)(27.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 27 % 3);
	assert(ModExpr!(false)(28.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 28 % 3);
	assert(ModExpr!(false)(29.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 29 % 3);
	assert(ModExpr!(false)(30.Z, 3.Z).eval() == 30 % 3);

	const Z x = ModExpr!(false)(29.Z, 3.Z);
	assert(x == 2);
}

/// `MpZ`-`ulong` power expression.
private struct PowUExpr(P, Q)
if (isMpZExpr!P &&
	isUnsigned!Q)
{
	P e1;					   // base
	Q e2;					   // exponent
	MpZ eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref MpZ y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_pow_ui(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr, e2);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(PowUExpr!(MpZ, ulong)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(PowUExpr!(Z, ulong)(3.Z, 3).eval() == 3^^3);
}

/// `MpZ`-`ulong`-`MpZ` power-modulo expression.
private struct PowMUExpr(P, Q, M)
if (isMpZExpr!P &&
	isUnsigned!Q &&
	isMpZExpr!M)
{
	P base;					 // base
	Q exp;					  // exponent
	M mod;					  // modulo
	MpZ eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref MpZ y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_powm_ui(y._ptr, base.eval()._ptr, exp, mod._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(PowMUExpr!(MpZ, ulong, MpZ)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(PowMUExpr!(Z, ulong, Z)(3.Z, 3, 20.Z).eval() == 3^^3 % 20);
}

/// `MpZ` negation expression.
private struct NegExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_neg(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(NegExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	assert(NegExpr!(false)(27.Z).eval() == -27);
	const Z x = NegExpr!(false)(27.Z);
	assert(x == -27);
}

/** `MpZ` square root expression.

	See: https://gmplib.org/manual/Integer-Roots
 */
private struct SqrtExpr(bool cow)
{
	_Z!(cow) e1;
	_Z!(cow) eval() const nothrow @nogc @trusted   // TODO: move to common place
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		typeof(return) y = null;
		evalTo(y);
		return y;
	}
	void evalTo(ref _Z!(cow) y) const nothrow @nogc @trusted
	{
		version(LDC) pragma(inline, true);
		__gmpz_sqrt(y._ptr, e1.eval()._ptr);
	}
}
version(gmp_test) version(unittest) static assert(isMpZExpr!(SqrtExpr!(false)));

version(gmp_test) @safe @nogc unittest
{
	foreach (const n; 16 .. 25)
		assert(SqrtExpr!(false)(n.Z).eval() == 4);
	assert(SqrtExpr!(false)(25.Z).eval() == 5);
}

// Copied from `std.numeric` to prevent unnecessary Phobos deps.
private T _integralAbs(T)(scope const T x) @safe
if (isIntegral!T)
{
	pragma(inline, true);
	return x >= 0 ? x : -x;
}

/// as hash table key
version(gmp_test) @safe unittest
{
	// TODO: disabled until non-copyable types work in AA's
	// string[Z] aa;
	// aa[123.Z] = "abc";
	// aa[456.Z] = "def";
	// assert(aa[123.Z] == "abc");
	// assert(aa[456.Z] == "def");
}

/// copyable integer
version(gmp_test) @trusted unittest
{
	alias CZ = CopyableMpZ;

	const CZ a = 42;

	const CZ b = a;				// copy
	assert(a == b);			 // should equal
	assert(a !is b);			// but not the same

	const CZ c = null;			// other value
	assert(a != c);			 // should diff
}

/// to string conversion
version(gmp_test) pure @safe nothrow unittest
{
	for (int i = -100; i < 100; ++i)
	{
		import std.conv : to;
		assert(i.Z.toString == i.to!string);
	}
}

version(gmp_test) version(unittest)
{
	// version = ccc;			  // do C mutation call count
	debug import core.stdc.stdio : printf;
	static assert(!isMpZExpr!int);
	import std.meta : AliasSeq;
	alias Z = MpZ;
	alias CZ = CopyableMpZ;
	alias RZ = _Z!(true);
}

// C API
package extern(C) pragma(inline, false)
{
	alias __mp_limb_t = ulong;	// see `mp_limb_t` gmp.h. TODO: detect when it is `uint` instead
	struct __mpz_struct
	{
		int _mp_alloc;			/* Number of *limbs* allocated and pointed to by
								   the _mp_d field.  */
		int _mp_size;			/* abs(_mp_size) is the number of limbs the last
								   field points to.  If _mp_size is negative
								   this is a negative number.  */
		__mp_limb_t* _mp_d;		/* Pointer to the limbs. */
	}
	static assert(__mpz_struct.sizeof == 16); // fits in two 64-bit words

	alias mpz_srcptr = const(__mpz_struct)*;
	alias mpz_ptr = __mpz_struct*;
	alias mp_bitcnt_t = ulong;

	pure nothrow @nogc:

	void __gmpz_init(mpz_ptr);
	void __gmpz_init_set(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_init_set_d(mpz_ptr, double);
	void __gmpz_init_set_si(mpz_ptr, long);
	void __gmpz_init_set_ui(mpz_ptr, ulong);
	int __gmpz_init_set_str(mpz_ptr, const char*, int);

	void __gmpz_set(mpz_ptr rop, mpz_srcptr op);
	void __gmpz_set_ui(mpz_ptr rop, ulong op);
	void __gmpz_set_si(mpz_ptr rop, long op);
	void __gmpz_set_d(mpz_ptr rop, double op);
	int __gmpz_set_str(mpz_ptr, const char*, int);

	void __gmpz_clear(mpz_ptr);

	void __gmpz_abs(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_neg(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_add(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_add_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_addmul(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_addmul_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_sub(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_sub_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_ui_sub(mpz_ptr, ulong, mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_mul(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_mul_2exp(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mp_bitcnt_t);
	void __gmpz_mul_si(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, long);
	void __gmpz_mul_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_cdiv_q_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	ulong __gmpz_cdiv_r_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_cdiv_qr_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_cdiv_ui(mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_fdiv_q_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	ulong __gmpz_fdiv_r_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_fdiv_qr_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_fdiv_ui(mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_tdiv_q(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_tdiv_r(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_tdiv_q_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	ulong __gmpz_tdiv_r_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_tdiv_qr_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_tdiv_ui(mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_tdiv_q_2exp (mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mp_bitcnt_t b);
	//void __gmpz_tdiv_r_2exp (mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mp_bitcnt_t b);

	void __gmpz_mod(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_mod_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_pow_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_ui_pow_ui(mpz_ptr, ulong, ulong);

	void __gmpz_swap(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr);

	int __gmpz_cmp(mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_cmp_d(mpz_srcptr, double);
	int __gmpz_cmp_si(mpz_srcptr, long);
	int __gmpz_cmp_ui(mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	int __gmpz_cmpabs(mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_cmpabs_d(mpz_srcptr, double);
	int __gmpz_cmpabs_ui(mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_nextprime(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_gcd(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	ulong __gmpz_gcd_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	void __gmpz_lcm(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_lcm_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);

	char *__gmpz_get_str(char*, int, mpz_srcptr);
	size_t __gmpz_sizeinbase(mpz_srcptr, int);
	void *__gmpz_export(void* , size_t*, int, size_t, int, size_t, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_import(mpz_ptr, size_t, int, size_t, int, size_t, const void *);

	void __gmpz_powm(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_powm_ui(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong, mpz_srcptr);

	int __gmpz_invert(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);

	ulong __gmpz_get_ui(mpz_srcptr);
	long __gmpz_get_si(mpz_srcptr);
	double __gmpz_get_d(mpz_srcptr);

	int __gmpz_fits_ulong_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_fits_slong_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_fits_uint_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_fits_sint_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_fits_ushort_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_fits_sshort_p(mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_and(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_ior(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_xor(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_com(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);

	void __gmpz_setbit(mpz_ptr, mp_bitcnt_t);
	void __gmpz_clrbit(mpz_ptr, mp_bitcnt_t);
	void __gmpz_combit(mpz_ptr, mp_bitcnt_t);
	int __gmpz_tstbit(mpz_srcptr, mp_bitcnt_t);

	mp_bitcnt_t __gmpz_popcount(mpz_srcptr);

	int  __gmpz_root(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_rootrem(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr, ulong);
	void __gmpz_sqrt(mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);
	void __gmpz_sqrtrem(mpz_ptr, mpz_ptr, mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_perfect_power_p(mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_perfect_square_p(mpz_srcptr);

	int __gmpz_divisible_p(mpz_srcptr, mpz_srcptr);
	int __gmpz_divisible_ui_p(mpz_srcptr, ulong);
}

pragma(lib, "gmp");
pragma(lib, "c");				// needed by `malloc` and `free`