diff --git a/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.cpp b/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.cpp
index 5f2f02e6879..d8c99e08b7b 100644
--- a/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.cpp
+++ b/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include "backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.h"
 
+#include <functional>
 #include <string>
 #include <utility>
 #include <vector>
@@ -27,7 +28,7 @@ std::vector<const char *> *CompilerTarget::initCompiler(int argc, char **argv) {
     return get().initCompilerImpl(argc, argv);
 }
 
-std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompiler() {
+CompilerResultOrError CompilerTarget::runCompiler() {
     const auto *program = P4Tools::CompilerTarget::runParser();
     if (program == nullptr) {
         return std::nullopt;
@@ -36,7 +37,7 @@ std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompiler() {
     return runCompiler(program);
 }
 
-std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompiler(const std::string &source) {
+CompilerResultOrError CompilerTarget::runCompiler(const std::string &source) {
     const auto *program = P4::parseP4String(source, P4CContext::get().options().langVersion);
     if (program == nullptr) {
         return std::nullopt;
@@ -45,12 +46,11 @@ std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompiler(const std::str
     return runCompiler(program);
 }
 
-std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompiler(const IR::P4Program *program) {
+CompilerResultOrError CompilerTarget::runCompiler(const IR::P4Program *program) {
     return get().runCompilerImpl(program);
 }
 
-std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompilerImpl(
-    const IR::P4Program *program) const {
+CompilerResultOrError CompilerTarget::runCompilerImpl(const IR::P4Program *program) const {
     const auto &self = get();
 
     program = self.runFrontend(program);
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ std::optional<const CompilerResult *> CompilerTarget::runCompilerImpl(
         return std::nullopt;
     }
 
-    return new CompilerResult(*program);
+    return *new CompilerResult(*program);
 }
 
 ICompileContext *CompilerTarget::makeContextImpl() const {
diff --git a/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.h b/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.h
index c0961f5f0f7..7d88f2cb7d4 100644
--- a/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.h
+++ b/backends/p4tools/common/compiler/compiler_target.h
@@ -31,6 +31,10 @@ class CompilerResult : public ICastable {
     [[nodiscard]] const IR::P4Program &getProgram() const;
 };
 
+/// P4Tools compilers may return an error instead of a compiler result.
+/// This is a convenience definition for the return value.
+using CompilerResultOrError = std::optional<std::reference_wrapper<const CompilerResult>>;
+
 /// Encapsulates the details of invoking the P4 compiler for a target device and architecture.
 class CompilerTarget : public Target {
  public:
@@ -46,25 +50,25 @@ class CompilerTarget : public Target {
     /// program.
     ///
     /// @returns std::nullopt if an error occurs during compilation.
-    static std::optional<const CompilerResult *> runCompiler();
+    static CompilerResultOrError runCompiler();
 
     /// Runs the P4 compiler to produce an IR and other information for the given source code.
     ///
     /// @returns std::nullopt if an error occurs during compilation.
-    static std::optional<const CompilerResult *> runCompiler(const std::string &source);
+    static CompilerResultOrError runCompiler(const std::string &source);
 
  private:
     /// Runs the front and mid ends on the given parsed program.
     ///
     /// @returns std::nullopt if an error occurs during compilation.
-    static std::optional<const CompilerResult *> runCompiler(const IR::P4Program *);
+    static CompilerResultOrError runCompiler(const IR::P4Program *);
 
  protected:
     /// @see @makeContext.
     [[nodiscard]] virtual ICompileContext *makeContextImpl() const;
 
     /// @see runCompiler.
-    virtual std::optional<const CompilerResult *> runCompilerImpl(const IR::P4Program *) const;
+    virtual CompilerResultOrError runCompilerImpl(const IR::P4Program *) const;
 
     /// This implementation just forwards the given arguments to the compiler.
     ///
diff --git a/backends/p4tools/common/p4ctool.h b/backends/p4tools/common/p4ctool.h
index 67a267982f4..a66cacc6a9f 100644
--- a/backends/p4tools/common/p4ctool.h
+++ b/backends/p4tools/common/p4ctool.h
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class AbstractP4cTool {
         if (!compilerResult.has_value()) {
             return EXIT_FAILURE;
         }
-        return mainImpl(*compilerResult.value());
+        return mainImpl(compilerResult.value());
     }
 };
 
diff --git a/backends/p4tools/modules/testgen/test/gtest_utils.cpp b/backends/p4tools/modules/testgen/test/gtest_utils.cpp
index 1fe82f313da..eb1dd14bd37 100644
--- a/backends/p4tools/modules/testgen/test/gtest_utils.cpp
+++ b/backends/p4tools/modules/testgen/test/gtest_utils.cpp
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ std::optional<const P4ToolsTestCase> P4ToolsTestCase::create(
     if (!compilerResults.has_value()) {
         return std::nullopt;
     }
-    return P4ToolsTestCase{compilerResults.value()->getProgram()};
+    return P4ToolsTestCase(compilerResults.value().get().getProgram());
 }
 
 const IR::P4Program &P4ToolsTestCase::getProgram() const { return program.get(); }