apacheGH-38174: [C++] Update bundled Azure SDK for C++ to 1.10.3 (apa…

…che#38175)

### Rationale for this change

It has g++ 13 support.

### What changes are included in this PR?

Update version and checksum.

### Are these changes tested?

Yes.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

Yes.
* Closes: apache#38174

Authored-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>
Signed-off-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>

cpp/thirdparty/versions.txt

@@ -54,8 +54,8 @@ ARROW_AWS_LC_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=ae96a3567161552744fc0cae8b4d68ed88b1ec0f3d3c9
 ARROW_AWSSDK_BUILD_VERSION=1.10.55
 ARROW_AWSSDK_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=2d552fb1a84bef4a9b65e34aa7031851ed2aef5319e02cc6e4cb735c48aa30de
 # Despite the confusing version name this is still the whole Azure SDK for C++ including core, keyvault, storage-common, etc.
-ARROW_AZURE_SDK_BUILD_VERSION=azure-core_1.10.2
-ARROW_AZURE_SDK_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=36557dae87de4cdd257d9b441d9a7f043290eae6666fb1065e0fa486ae3e58a0
+ARROW_AZURE_SDK_BUILD_VERSION=azure-core_1.10.3
+ARROW_AZURE_SDK_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=dd624c2f86adf474d2d0a23066be6e27af9cbd7e3f8d9d8fd7bf981e884b7b48
 ARROW_BOOST_BUILD_VERSION=1.81.0
 ARROW_BOOST_BUILD_SHA256_CHECKSUM=9e0ffae35528c35f90468997bc8d99500bf179cbae355415a89a600c38e13574
 ARROW_BROTLI_BUILD_VERSION=v1.0.9