- Scala since 2014
- Now: Numbrs
- Before: sahibinden.com, VNGRS, Linovi
- Contact: akif.dev
- Programming with functions based on mathematical function model
- Not imperative, we don't tell to do things
- Declarative, we describe what to do and that description is interpereted/executed
- Pure function
- Output only depends on its input
- No changes to external state
- Side effect
- Modifying input or some state
- Not necessarily producing a result
- Why FP?
- Reasoning about code
- Immutability - https://impurepics.com/posts/2020-05-28-how-to-change-lightbulb.html
- Testing
- Referential transparency - inline all the things!
- Statically typed with a powerful type system
- Multiparadigm, best of both worlds, OOP + FP
- Runs on JVM, Java interop is possible
- Modern, concise, cool
object Application {
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
println("Hello world!")
}
}// A variable of type `String`
var variableMessage: String = "test"
// Can be reassigned
variableMessage = "test 2"
// No initial value (e.g. null), _ is used as a placeholder on definitions
var variable2: String = _
// A value (final variable)
val message: String = "hello"
// Cannot do this because val cannot be reassigned
message = "test"
// Cannot do because a value it won't be assigned in the future, needs to be assigned now
val value: String = _
// Type can be inferred, (mostly) no need to provide it explicitly in the definition
val number = 42 // Type is `Int`
val isEnabled = false // Type is `Boolean`
val timestamp = 123456789L // Type is `Long`
val separator = '-' // Type is `Char`
val average = 123.45 // Type is `Double`
// A method taking 3 parameters and returning `String`
// `z` has a default value (like overloading)
def explain(x: String, y: Int, z: Boolean = false): String = {
// String interpolation
s"X = $x, Y = $y, Z = $z"
}
println(explain("hello", 5, true))
// Named arguments, notice `z` is not provided so default value will be used
println(explain(x = "hello", 5))
// Since arguments can be named, order may change
println(explain(y = 42, z = true, x = "test"))
// Method return types can also be inferred
// If method body is a single expression, {} are not needed
def add(a: Int, b: Int) = a + b
// Methods can have multiple parameter groups
def someWeirdMethod(x: String, y: Int)(z: Boolean): Char = ???
// They can also have 0 parameters
def hello = "hello"
val score = 42
// if/else if/else block as an expression (produces value)
val state =
if (score < 33) {
"Low"
} else if (score < 66) {
"Average"
} else {
"High"
}
// match expression (similar but more powerful than switch, more on that later)
val message =
state match {
case "Low" => "Try again"
case "Average" => "OK"
case _ => "Congratulations" // default branch
}
// while loop with a variable that changes loop condition
var i = 1
while (i <= 10) {
println(i)
i += 1
}
// Iterating over [1, 5] range (index based for loop)
for (i <- 1 to 5) println(i)
// Iterating over [6, 11) range
for (j <- 6 until 11) {
println(j)
}
// Multi dimentional, stepped and conditioned for
for {
i <- 1 to 20 by 2 // i = 1, 3, 5, ...
j <- i to (i * 2) if j < 14 // j won't be >= 14, loop will terminate
} {
print("[" + i + ", " + j + "] ")
}
// for also can be an expression via `yield`, otherwise for returns `Unit`
val doubles = (for (i <- 1 to 3) yield i * 2).toList // List(2, 4, 6)// `Int => Int` is the type of the function, sugar for `Function1[Int, Int]`
// `number` is inferred to be of `Int` in the lambda
// `double` is called a function literal
val double: Int => Int = number => number * 2
// Name can be omitted in simole cases
val half: Int => Int = _ / 2
// `(Int, Int) => String` is inferred
val describe = { (number1: Int, number2: Int) =>
val doubled = double(number1) // invocation is like method call
val halved = half(number2)
// Triple quoted String literal
// Great for multiline, great for using quotations without escaping
// Can define margin and strip it later for easier formatting
s"""
|For "$number1":
| Double: $doubled
| Half : $halved
|""".stripMargin
}
for (i <- 1 to 5) {
println(describe(i, i))
}// Array construction, `Array[Int]` is inferred
val numbers = Array(1, 2, 3)
// Access an index
println(numbers(1))
// Update an index
numbers(0) = 2
numbers.update(2, 5)
// Classic foreach-style loop
for (i <- numbers) {
println(i)
}
// Functional way of side-effecting loop
// Here, `foreach` takes a `Int => Unit`
// Using the value, not producing result, hence the side effect
numbers.foreach { i =>
println(i)
}// List construction, `List[Int]` is inferred
val scores = List(37, 83)
// `head :: tail` style list construction, ends with `Nil` (empty List)
val names = "Mehmet" :: "Akif" :: Nil
// Prepending via `+:` and getting a new list, List is immutable
val moreNames = "Ali" +: names
// Appending via `:+`, addition happens where `+` is
val evenMoreNames = moreNames :+ "Veli"
// Apply some operations, like a pipeline and get new values
val someUpperCaseNames = evenMoreNames.filter(_.length > 3).map(_.toUpperCase)
// Access via application (`apply` method)
println(someUpperCaseNames(0))
// Pattern matching against a List
someUpperCaseNames match {
case "MEHMET" :: nextName :: _ =>
// Matching first element to a literal
// Matching second to a named value, `nextName` is inferred as `String`
// Ignoring tail via `_`
println(s"First name was MEHMET and the next is $nextName")
case _ =>
println("Pattern did not match")
}
// Folding starts with a value, uses that value and current item while iterating over
// For a `List[A]`, signature is `foldLeft(b: B)(f: A => B): B`
val string =
(1 to 5).toList
// List[Int]
.zipWithIndex
// List[(Int, Int)]
.map { case (number, index) => s"$index: $number" }
// List[String]
.foldLeft("") { case (result, value) => result + s"$value, " }
// String// Set creation, `Set[String]` is inferred
val initialWords = Set("hello", "world")
val newWords = "Damn! World failed."
.replaceAll("[^\\w]", " ") // Replace anything not a letter with space
.split(" ") // Split from spaces into an Array
.filterNot(_.isEmpty) // Remove empty Strings
.map(_.toLowerCase) // Lowercase words
.toSet // Convert the Array to a Set
// Set union, won't add "world" again
val allWords = initialWords ++ newWords
if (allWords.contains("damn")) {
println("Watch your language!")
}// Map creation, `Map[Char, Int]` is inferred
val romanNumerals = Map(
'I' -> 1, // Syntax sugar for `Tuple2`
'V' -> 5,
'X' -> 10,
'L' -> 50,
'C' -> 100,
'D' -> 500,
'M' -> 1000
)
def convert(romanNumeralType: Char): Int =
if (!romanNumerals.contains(romanNumeralType)) {
-1
} else {
// Access directly by key (via `apply`)
// Use with caution. If key doesn't exist, it will throw an exception.
romanNumerals(romanNumeralType)
}
println(s"X: ${convert('X')}")
println(s"A: ${convert('A')}")// `Option[Int]` is inferred as return type
def divide(a: Int, b: Int) = if (b == 0) None else Some(a / b)
val division1 = divide(4, 2) // Some(2)
val division2 = divide(5, 0) // None
// `Option.apply` is smart against nulls, `Some` is not smart (`Some(null)` is possible)
val maybeUserName = Option(SomeJavaClass.getNullableUserName)
// Can be pattern matched
division2 match {
case Some(result) => println(result)
case None => println("Cannot divide by 0")
}
// For comprehension, will print and be `Some(15)`
val calculation1 =
for {
res1 <- divide(9, 1)
res2 <- divide(8, 2)
res3 <- divide(7, 3)
} yield {
println("Yielding result")
res1 + res2 + res3
}
// Won't print and be `None`
val calculation2 =
for {
res1 <- divide(6, 4)
res2 <- divide(5, 0)
} yield {
println("Results: $res1, $res2")
res1 + res2
}
// This is what happens behind the scenes of `calculation1`
val calculation3 =
divide(9, 1).flatMap { res1 => // Values are flatmapped
divide(8, 2).flatMap { res2 =>
divide(7, 3).map { res3 => // Last value is mapped
println("Yielding result")
res1 + res2 + res3
}
}
}
val result1 = calculation1.get // 15
val result2 = calculation2.get // NoSuchElementException: None.get
val result3 = calculation2.getOrElse(0) // 0
val message =
calculation2.orElse(calculation1) // Provide alternative `Option[Int]`
.filter(_ > 10) // Will be `None` if predicate fails against value
.fold("No result") { i => // `def fold(default: B)(use: A => B): B`
s"Result = $i"
}val errorOrValue1: Either[String, Double] = Left("no value")
val errorOrValue2: Either[Exception, Int] = Right(42)
val error1 = errorOrValue1.swap.toOption // Some("no value") as `Option[String]`
val error2 = errorOrValue2.left.toOption // None as `Option[Exception]`
// `Either` is right-biased, if Left, default value will be returned
val value1 = errorOrValue1.getOrElse(0) // 0 as `Double`
val value2 = errorOrValue2.getOrElse(0) // 42 as `Int`
// Can be pattern matched
errorOrValue1 match {
case Left(error) => println(s"Error: $error")
case Right(value) => println(s"Value: $value")
}
// Need to indicate types of both sides for type inference to infer correct types
// Otherwise `Right(3)` would be inferred as `Right[Any, Int]`
// Result will be `Right("hello 3")` as `Either[String, String]`
val maybeMessage =
for {
number <- Right[String, Int](3)
message <- Right[String, String]("hello")
} yield s"$message $number"
// `Left(false)` as `Either[Boolean, Int]`
val maybeMultiplication =
for {
a <- Left[Boolean, Double](false)
b <- Right[Boolean, Int](5)
} yield a * bimport scala.util.{Try, Success, Failure} // multiple imports from same package
def firstUnsafe(list: List[Int]): Int = list.head
val first1 = firstUnsafe(List.empty) // NoSuchElementException: head of empty list
val first2 =
try {
firstUnsafe(List.empty)
} catch {
// catch part is also a pattern matching
case e: IllegalArgumentException => println(e); -1 // Semicolon if you really need
case _: NoSuchElementException => -2
case e =>
e.printStackTrace()
-3
}
// `Try.apply` is the functional way of wrapping things in try-catch
def first(list: List[Int]): Try[Int] = Try { list.head }
val first3 = first(List.empty) // Failure(...)
val first4 = first(List(1, 2, 3)) // Success(1)
println(first3.get) // Will throw the caught exception
println(first3.getOrElse(-1)) // -1
println(first4.get) // 1
// Recover with a value if given partial function matches
// Success(-1)
val first5 = first3.recover {
case e if e.getMessage.contains("empty") =>
-1
}
// Recover with another Try if given partial function matches
// Failure(Exception(NoSuchElementException(...)))
val first6 = first3.recoverWith {
case e: IllegalArgumentException => Success(-1)
case e => Failure(new Exception(e))
}// Primary constructor in the definition, concise syntax
class Player(val name: String, var score: Int, isNoob: Boolean = true) {
// `override` is a keyword, not an annotation
override def equals(obj: Any): Boolean =
obj match {
// Matches on the type, not the value itself, value is bound to name `that`
case that: Player =>
// `==` is `equals` so Strings are also compared using `==`
this.name == that.name && this.score == that.score
case _ => false
}
override def hashCode(): Int =
17 * name.hashCode() * score
def copy(newName: String = name, newScore: Int = score): Player =
new Player(newName, newScore)
override def toString(): String =
s"Player($name, $score)"
}
// Instance creation via `new`
val player = new Player("Akif", 0)
// `score` is a field, therefore can be accessed (and be modified since it's var)
player.score += 10
// This won't work here (outside the class)
// `isNoob` is only a constructor parameter, not a field
println(player.isNoob)
println(player.copy(newName = "Mehmet Akif"))// Immutable, therefore `val` fields by default
// Generates all the boilerplate for you
case class Player(name: String, score: Int = 0)
// No need for `new` because generated `apply` is called as `Player.apply(...)`
val player = Player("Akif")
// Generated `copy` to get a copied instance with certain things modified
val playerWithHigherScore = player.copy(score = player.score + 10)
// Generated `toString`
println(playerWithHigherScore)
// Also `equals`, `hashCode` and more are generated// Out-of-the-box singleton
object Utilities {
val pi = 3.141592653589793
def areaOfCircle(radius: Double): Double = pi * radius * radius
}class Cake(val layers: Int) {
val description: String = s"$layers layered cake"
def celebrate(): Unit = Cake.celebrateWith(this)
}
// Companion object to `Cake` using same name, otherwise a regular object
object Cake {
// Acts as a constructor, can be overloaded
def apply(layers: Int): Cake = new Cake(layers)
def celebrateWith(cake: Cake): Unit =
println(s"I'm having a ${cake.description} for celebration.")
}
val fruitCake = new Cake(2) // Regular instance creation
val chocolateCake = Cake(3) // Short for `Cake.apply(3)`
// Instance method
chocolateCake.celebrate()
// Accessed statically on the object
Cake.celebrateWith(fruitCake)// Can have primary constructor like a regular class
// Can be extended only once via `extends`
abstract class Pide() {
def eat(): Unit
}
// Interface on steroids, cannot have a constructor (yet)
trait Meaty {
val meat: String
}
trait Cheesy {
val cheese: String
}
// First extend via `extends`, then mix-in via `with`
case class CheesyMeatPide(override val meat: String,
override val cheese: String) extends Pide() with Meaty with Cheesy {
val name: String = s"$meat pide with $cheese cheese"
override def eat(): Unit = println(s"Eating $name")
}
object VegetarianPide extends Pide() with Cheesy {
override val cheese: String = "white"
override def eat(): Unit = println(s"I don't eat meat so I'm eating $cheese cheese pide")
}
CheesyMeatPide("ground beef", "white cheddar").eat()
VegetarianPide.eat()// Standard Scala enumeration (not the recommended way)
// It will contain an inner `Value` type.
object Color extends Enumeration {
// This weird thing generates `Value` instances
// for these values during compilation
val Red, Green, Blue = Value
}
println(Color.values) // Color.ValueSet(Red, Green, Blue)
println(Color.Blue.id) // 2
println(Color.withName("Green")) // Green
object RGB extends Enumeration {
// You can extend `Value` to add more fields to each item
case class CustomVal(override val id: Int, code: Char) extends Value
// We instantiate them ourselves in this case.
val Red = CustomVal(0, 'r')
val Green = CustomVal(1, 'g')
val Blue = CustomVal(2, 'b')
override def values: RGB.ValueSet = RGB.ValueSet(Red, Green, Blue)
}
println(RGB.Blue.code) // b
def describe(color: RGB.CustomVal): String =
color match {
case RGB.Red => "red"
case RGB.Blue => "blue"
}
// This will fail with `MatchError` in runtime!
println(describe(RGB.Green))// Sealed means `Color` cannot be extended outside this file.
// In other words, all possible subtypes of this type is known.
// It will also help compiler in exhaustivity checks of pattern matches.
sealed trait Color
object Color {
// Regular inheritance, need single instances so they are `object`s
// We want to benefit from generated methods so we also use `case`
case object Red extends Color
case object Green extends Color
case object Blue extends Color
// This is optional but it's a good idea to have it avaliable
val values: List[Color] = List(Red, Green, Blue)
}
// Custom type for enum items
sealed abstract class Auth(val anonymous: Boolean)
object Auth {
// Can have multiple instances since it's a regular class
case class UserPass(user: String, pass: String) extends Auth(false)
case class Token(token: String) extends Auth(false)
case object Guest extends Auth(true)
}
def getSecret(credentials: Auth): Either[String, Int] =
credentials match {
// Match to a pattern and add conditions if needed
case Auth.UserPass("admin", pass) if pass != "@dM1n" =>
Left("Incorrect username/password")
case Auth.Token("1234abc") =>
Left("Expired token")
// Can match against type and give name to value of that type
case Auth.Guest =>
Left("Need authorization")
// Can destruct and match against fields (and ignore some)
// Also give a name the matched pattern via `@`
// Here `a` is of `Auth.UserPass` type, not just `Auth`
case a @ Auth.UserPass(user, _) =>
println(s"Accessing secret as $user")
Right(42)
// Can match against type and not care about name of the value
case _: Auth.Token =>
println(s"Accessing secret as an API with token")
Right(42)
// If this pattern match did not cover all cases (not exhaustive),
// compiler will warn because `Auth` is a sealed type.
// In such a case, add `case _ =>` or handle all possible cases.
}
// Left(Need authorization)
println(getSecret(Auth.Guest))
// Left(Expired token)
println(getSecret(Auth.Token("1234abc")))
// Right(42)
println(getSecret(Auth.Token("test")))
// Right(Incorrect username/password)
println(getSecret(Auth.UserPass("admin", "admin")))
// Right(42)
println(getSecret(Auth.UserPass("admin", "@dM1n")))// `I` is called a type parameter of `Model`
trait Model[I] {
val id: I
}
abstract class Message[M] {
val content: M
}
case class TextMessage(override val id: Int,
override val content: String) extends Message[String]
with Model[Int]
case object UnitModel extends Model[Unit] {
override val id: Unit = ()
}
// `M` has a constraint, `M` must be a subtype of `Model[I]`
// Subtype relation is denoted with `<:`
// There is also its counterpart supertype constaint `>:`
def idOf[M <: Model[Int]](model: M): Int = model.id
val message = TextMessage(1, "Hello")
// Method type parameter is inferred from parameter
// Explicit version: `idOf[TextMessage](message)`
println(idOf(message)) // 1
// Will not work because `UnitModel` is not a `Model[Int]`
idOf(UnitModel)// Example from: https://docs.scala-lang.org/tour/higher-order-functions.html
// Method returns a function
def urlBuilder(secure: Boolean, domain: String): (String, String) => String = {
val schema = if (secure) "https://" else "http://"
// Function to be returned
(path: String, query: String) => s"$schema$domain/$path?$query"
}
// Function literal of type `(String, String) => String`
// (path: String, query: String) => s"https://google.com/$path?$query"
val getUrl = urlBuilder(secure = true, "google.com")
// https://google.com/search?q=scala
val url = getUrl("search", "q=scala")def convert(int: Int): String = int.toString
// Becomes a function literal of type `Int => String` when argument is not given
// Also called partially applied function
val converter = convert _
// `fold` has 2 parameter groups, it's also called a curried function
// Think of each parameter group as the input of next parameter group
//
// So type of `fold` is
// `(List[A], B) => ((B, A) => B) => B`
//
// When first parameter group is given it becomes
// `((B, A) => B) => B`
//
// When second parameter group is given it becomes
// `B`
def fold[A, B](list: List[A], initial: B)(operation: (B, A) => B): B = {
var result: B = initial
for (a <- list) {
result = operation(result, a)
}
result
}
// A function literal
val appender: (String, Int) => String = (s, i) => s + i.toString
// Second parameter group of `fold` is not given
// So it becomes a function literal, requiring the value of first parameter group as an input
val looper: ((String, Int) => String) => String = fold[Int, String]((1 to 5).toList, "")
// Apply the missing parameter (which is another function)
println(looper(appender)) // "12345"
// Notice second parameter group is written with {} as it is a function
// Type parameters of `fold` are both inferred to be `Int` here
//
// fold((1 to 5).toList, 0)((result, int) => result + int)
//
// fold((1 to 5).toList, 0)(_ + _)
println(
fold((1 to 5).toList, 0) { (result, int) =>
result + int
}
) // 15val list = (1 to 100 by 2).toList // List(1, 3, 5, ..., 97, 99)
list.head // 1
List.empty[Int].head // throws exception
list.headOption // Some(1)
List.empty[Int].headOption // None
list.last // 99
List.empty[Int].last // throws exception
list.lastOption // Some(99)
List.empty[Int].lastOption // None
list.tail // List(3, 5, ..., 97, 99)
List(1).tail // List()
List.empty[Int].tail // List()
list.mkString // 135...9799
list.mkString("-") // 1-3-5...-97-99
list.mkString("[", ", ", "]") // [1, 3, ..., 97, 99]
List.empty[Int].mkString("[", ", ", "]") // []
list.isEmpty // false
list.nonEmpty // true
list.contains(3) // true
list.contains(4) // false
list.exists(i => i * 2 == 46) // true
List.empty[Int].exists(i => i * 2 == 46) // false
list.forall(_ > 0) // true
list.forall(_ > 10) // false
List.empty[Int].forall(_ > 10) // true
list.find(_ * 2 == 46) // Some(23)
list.find(_ * 2 == 3) // None
list.filter(_ > 90) // List(91, 93, 95, 97, 99)
list.filterNot(_ > 10) // List(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
// On a `List[A]`, `map` takes `A => B` and returns `List[B]`
val listOfList: List[List[Int]] = list.map(i => List(i - 1, i)) // List(List(0, 1), List(2, 3), ...)
listOfList.flatten // List(0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 99)
// On a `List[A]`, `flatMap` takes `A => List[B]` and returns `List[B]`
// flatMap = map + flatten
list.flatMap(i => List(i - 1, i)) // List(0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 99)
// Same as `reduce`
// On a `List[A]`, `reduce` takes `(A, A) => A` and returns `A`
list.reduceLeft((i, j) => i + j) // 2500
List.empty[Int].reduceLeft(_ + _) // throws an exception
list.reduceLeftOption(_ + _) // Some(2500)
List.empty[Int].reduceLeftOption(_ + _) // None
// Same as `fold`
list.foldLeft("")((acc, i) => acc + i) // "1357...9799"
List.empty[Int].foldLeft("")((acc, i) => acc + i) // ""
list.foldRight("")((i, acc) => acc + i) // "9997...531"
List.empty[Int].foldLeft("")((acc, i) => acc + i) // ""
// Same as `list.filter(_ > 90).map(_ % 10)`
list.collect {
case i if i > 90 =>
i % 10
}
// List(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
// Same as `list.find(_ > 90).map(_ % 10)`
list.collectFirst {
case i if i > 90 =>
i % 10
}
// Some(1)
list.collectFirst {
case i if i > 100 =>
i % 10
}
// None
list.foreach(i => println(i))
list.drop(3) // List(7, 9, 11, ..., 97, 99)
list.dropRight(3) // List(1, 3, 5, ..., 91, 93)
list.take(3) // List(1, 3, 5)
list.takeRight(3) // List(95, 97, 99)
list.takeWhile(_ < 10) // List(1, 3, 5, 7)
// On a `List[Int]`, `partition` takes `Int => Boolean` and returns `(List[Int], List[Int])`
list.partition(_ < 50) // (List(1, 3, ..., 47, 49), List(51, 53, ..., 97, 99))
list.span(_ < 50) // (List(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ..., 47, 49), List(51, 53, ..., 97, 99))
list.reverse // List(99, 97, ..., 3, 1)
list.slice(3, 5) // List(7, 9)
List.empty[Int].slice(3 ,5) // List()To understand recursion, you must first understand recursion.
https://www.google.com/search?q=recursion
def fib(n: Int): Int =
if (n < 0) {
// Base case where recursion needs to stop (no recursive call)
0
} else if (n == 1) {
// Base case where recursion needs to stop (no recursive call)
1
} else {
// Recursive case where function calls itself
// i.e. represents itself with a combination of smaller problems
fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2)
}
/*
fib(4) =
fib(3) + fib(2) =
fib(2) + fib(1) + fib(2) =
fib(1) + fib(0) + fib(2) =
1 + 0 + fib(2) =
1 + fib(2) =
1 + fib(1) + fib(0) =
1 + 1 + 0 =
2
*/import scala.annotation.tailrec
// Regular recursion
def recSum(list: List[Int]): Int =
list match {
case Nil =>
0
case head :: tail =>
// recursive call is not in tail position
head + recSum(tail)
}
def tailRecSum(list: List[Int]): Int = {
// Method inside method
// Annotated with `@tailrec` so compiler will optimize this into a regular loop
@tailrec
def step(l: List[Int], result: Int): Int =
l match {
case Nil =>
result
case head :: tail =>
// recursive call is in tail position (only thing is the recursive call)
step(tail, result + head)
}
// Start stepping with entire list and 0 as sum
step(list, 0)
}class Logger {
def log(value: Any): Unit = println(value)
}
val logger = new Logger
def add(a: Int, b: Int, logger: Logger): Int = {
logger.log("a = " + a)
logger.log("b = " + b)
val result = a + b
logger.log("result = " + result)
result
}
add(2, 3, logger)class Logger {
def log(value: Any): Unit = println(value)
}
// Marking the value as implicit
// so any request to an implicit `Logger` can access this
implicit val logger = new Logger
// Moved `logger` into separate parameter group
// and marked it as `implicit` so it is searched in current scope.
//
// If there is no `Logger` instance marked as implicit in current scope,
// it won't compile.
def add(a: Int, b: Int)(implicit logger: Logger): Int = {
logger.log("a = " + a)
logger.log("b = " + b)
val result = a + b
logger.log("result = " + result)
result
}
// Not passing logger explicitly, it is being passed implicitly.
// Since implicit parameter is in a separate parameter group,
// we can call the method as if it doesn't have a second parameter group.
add(2, 3)
add(4, 5)(anotherLogger) // can still be provided explicitly
// `implicitly` method captures implicit instance of given type
implicitly[Logger].log("test")trait Show[A] {
def show(a: A): String
}
// new Show[Int] { override def show(a: Int): String = a.toString }
// { a: Int => a.toString }
// { _.toString }
implicit val intShow: Show[Int] = _.toString
def show1[A](a: A)(implicit s: Show[A]): String = s.show(a)
println(show1(42)) // 42
// Will not compile because there is no implicit `Show[String]` in scope
println(show1("42"))
// `A: Show` is called a context bound.
// It means there should be an implicit `Show[A]` in the context (scope) .
def show2[A: Show](a: A): String = implicitly[Show[A]].show(a)// This will not be evaluated until it is referenced.
lazy val x: String = {
println("Initializing x")
"hello"
}
val y: String = "world"
println(y)
// world
println(x)
// Initializing x
// hello
println(x)
// hellosealed abstract class LogLevel(val id: Int)
object LogLevel {
case object Debug extends LogLevel(1)
case object Warn extends LogLevel(2)
case object Error extends LogLevel(3)
}
class Logger(val level: LogLevel) {
// Writing `=> A` instead of `A` makes the parameter lazy.
// Unless `value` is referenced, it will not be evaluated.
// Think of it like a function taking no parameters
// so it doesn't produce the value until it is called.
//
// In this case, it will only be evaluated if it is actually going to be logged
def debug(value: => Any): Unit = if (enabled(LogLevel.Debug)) { println(value) }
def warn(value: => Any): Unit = if (enabled(LogLevel.Warn)) { println(value) }
def error(value: => Any): Unit = if (enabled(LogLevel.Error)) { println(value) }
private def enabled(l: LogLevel): Boolean = l.id >= level.id
}
val errorLogger = new Logger(LogLevel.Error)
def getValue(): String = {
println("Getting value")
"test"
}
// Prints nothing because `errorLogger` won't log at debug level
// Therefore argument `getValue()` won't be evaluated (because it is marked as lazy)
errorLogger.debug(getValue())
// Getting value
// test
errorLogger.error(getValue())// TODO// TODO