GH-40009: [C++] Add missing "#include <algorithm>" (#40010)

### Rationale for this change

`std::find()` is defined in `<algorithm>`. If we don't include `<algorithm>` explicitly, g++-14 complains:

    cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc: In function 'arrow::Result<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> > arrow::fs::internal::PathFromUriHelper(const std::string&, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >, bool, AuthorityHandlingBehavior)':
    cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc:143:16: error: no matching function for call to 'find(std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >::iterator, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >::iterator, const std::__cxx11::basic_string<char>&)'
      143 |   if (std::find(supported_schemes.begin(), supported_schemes.end(), scheme) ==
          |       ~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
    /usr/include/c++/14/bits/streambuf_iterator.h:435:5: note: candidate: 'template<class _CharT2> typename __gnu_cxx::__enable_if<std::__is_char<_CharT2>::__value, std::istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, std::char_traits<_CharT> > >::__type std::find(istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, char_traits<_CharT> >, istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, char_traits<_CharT> >, const _CharT2&)'
      435 |     find(istreambuf_iterator<_CharT> __first,
          |     ^~~~
    /usr/include/c++/14/bits/streambuf_iterator.h:435:5: note:   template argument deduction/substitution failed:
    cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc:143:16: note:   '__gnu_cxx::__normal_iterator<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char>*, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> > >' is not derived from 'std::istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, std::char_traits<_CharT> >'
      143 |   if (std::find(supported_schemes.begin(), supported_schemes.end(), scheme) ==
          |       ~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

### What changes are included in this PR?

Include `<algorithm>` explicitly.

### Are these changes tested?

Yes.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

No.
* Closes: #40009

Authored-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>
Signed-off-by: Jacob Wujciak-Jens <jacob@wujciak.de>

cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc

@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@
 
 #include "arrow/filesystem/util_internal.h"
 
+#include <algorithm>
 #include <cerrno>
 
 #include "arrow/buffer.h"