GH-40009: [C++] Add missing "#include <algorithm>"

[kou]

Rationale for this change

std::find() is defined in <algorithm>. If we don't include <algorithm> explicitly, g++-14 complains:

cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc: In function 'arrow::Result<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> > arrow::fs::internal::PathFromUriHelper(const std::string&, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >, bool, AuthorityHandlingBehavior)':
cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc:143:16: error: no matching function for call to 'find(std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >::iterator, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> >::iterator, const std::__cxx11::basic_string<char>&)'
  143 |   if (std::find(supported_schemes.begin(), supported_schemes.end(), scheme) ==
      |       ~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
/usr/include/c++/14/bits/streambuf_iterator.h:435:5: note: candidate: 'template<class _CharT2> typename __gnu_cxx::__enable_if<std::__is_char<_CharT2>::__value, std::istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, std::char_traits<_CharT> > >::__type std::find(istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, char_traits<_CharT> >, istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, char_traits<_CharT> >, const _CharT2&)'
  435 |     find(istreambuf_iterator<_CharT> __first,
      |     ^~~~
/usr/include/c++/14/bits/streambuf_iterator.h:435:5: note:   template argument deduction/substitution failed:
cpp/src/arrow/filesystem/util_internal.cc:143:16: note:   '__gnu_cxx::__normal_iterator<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char>*, std::vector<std::__cxx11::basic_string<char> > >' is not derived from 'std::istreambuf_iterator<_CharT, std::char_traits<_CharT> >'
  143 |   if (std::find(supported_schemes.begin(), supported_schemes.end(), scheme) ==
      |       ~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

What changes are included in this PR?

Include <algorithm> explicitly.

Are these changes tested?

Yes.

Are there any user-facing changes?

No.

• Closes: [C++] Can't build with GCC 14 #40009

[github-actions]

⚠️ GitHub issue #40009 has been automatically assigned in GitHub to PR creator.

[assignUser]

Thanks!

[conbench-apache-arrow]

After merging your PR, Conbench analyzed the 6 benchmarking runs that have been run so far on merge-commit 990e475.

There were no benchmark performance regressions. 🎉

The full Conbench report has more details. It also includes information about 24 possible false positives for unstable benchmarks that are known to sometimes produce them.